PKL-: cVVrefs.MYDW?5Abbaszadegan, M. M. S. Huber C. P. Gerba I. L. Pepper1993LDetection of enteroviruses in groundwater with the polymerase chain reaction 1318-1324&Applied and Environmental Microbiology595CStandard methods for the detection of enteroviruses in environmental samples involve the use of cell culture, which is expensive and time-consuming. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an attractive method for the detection of enteroviruses in water because primary cell culture is not needed and the increased sensitivity of PCR allows detection of the low numbers of target DNAs and RNAs usually found in environmental samples. However, environmental samples often contain substances that inhibit PCR amplification of target DNA and RNA. Procedures that remove substances that interfere with the amplification process need to be developed if PCR is to be successfully applied to environmental samples. An RNA-PCR assay for the detection of enteroviruses in water was developed and used to test a variety of groundwater concentrates and humic acid solutions seeded with poliovirus type 1. The groundwater samples and humic acid solutions were treated with Sephadex G-50, Sephadex G-100, Sephadex G-200, Chelex-100 resin, and a mixed bed resin to remove PCR-inhibitory material from the samples. Sephadex G-100 in combination with Chelex-100 was found to be very effective in removing inhibitory factors for the detection of enteroviruses in groundwater concentrates by PCR. Viruses were detected in two of the groundwater concentrates by the RNA-PCR assay after treatment with Sephadex G-100 plus Chelex-100. This was confirmed by tissue culture, suggesting that the treatment protocol and, subsequently, the RNA-PCR assay are applicable for the detection of enteroviruses in environmental samples. ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?Campell (no initials given)1943An outbreak of jaundice64-65Health Bulletin (Edinburgh)2ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?Plowright, C. B.1896/On an epidemic of jaundice in king's lynn, 18951321British Medical Journal1ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform? Aycock, W. L.1927&A milk-borne epidemic of poliomyelitis791-803 Am. J. Hyg.7 not availableProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?GAndo, T. M. N. Mulders D. C. Lewis M. K. Estes S. S. Monroe R. I. Glass1994Comparison of the polymerase region of small round structured virus strains previously classified in three antigenic types by solid-phase immune electron microscopy217-226Archive of Virology1351-2AWe have used a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction with nested sets of primers to determine the nucleotide sequences of a 166 base pair segment of the RNA polymerase region of seven strains of small round structured viruses (SRSVs) from the United Kingdom. These SRSV strains were previously classified by solid-phase immune electron microscopy into three antigenic types--UK2, UK3 and UK4, which are comparable to the prototype strains Norwalk virus, Hawaii agent, and Snow Mountain agents, respectively. Based on their sequences, the seven strains from the United Kingdom could be divided into two groups. The first group included two strains of the UK2 type along with Norwalk virus and Southampton virus and the second group included three strains of UK3 and two strains of UK4 types. Viruses in the first group showed 75.3%-77.1% nucleotide and 89.1%-94.6% amino acid identity with Norwalk virus while those of the second group showed 60.8%-63.3% nucleotide and 67.3%-69.1% amino acid identity. Nucleotide and amino acid identity within the second group ranged between 91.6%-99.4% and 96.4%-100%, respectively. These results suggest that the SRSVs antigenically related with Norwalk virus, Hawaii agent, and Snow Mountain agent, can be classified into two genotypes on the basis of their sequences in the RNA polymerase region. ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workformH?Caul, E. O. N. J. Sellwood D. W. Brown A. Curry T. J. Humphrey D. N. Hutchinson J. B. Kurtz S. R. Palmer T. Riordan I. R. Sharp19932Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with SRSVs2-87Public Health Library Service, UK - Microbiology Digest10ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workformO?%McKillip, J. L. L. A. Jaykus M. Drake1999^Nucleic acid persistence in heat-killed Escherichia coli O157 : H7 from contaminated skim milk839-844Journal of Food Protection628GPolymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR using primers targeting 16S rRNA sequences in Escherichia coli O157:H7 were applied to monitor the stability of rDNA anal rRNA in cells killed by mild heat treatment (60 degrees C) in skim milk. Serial dilutions of purified RNA and DNA from E. coli O157:H7 in skim milk were amplified by RT-PCR or PCR, respectively, before heat treatment and at time points 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after heating. In general, DNA-PCR provided stronger amplification signals compared to RT-PCR at the corresponding time points with the same PCR primer set, indicating a tower efficiency of RNA amplification compared to that of DNA. Ribosomal RNA. and rDNA could be amplified by RT-PCR or PCR from both viable and dead cells throughout the 48-h posttreatment holding period. For RT-PCR, amplification signals decreased in intensity with increased holding time, while the efficiency of amplification of DNA sequences from dead cells remained fairly stable throughout the study. DNA persistence was greater than that of rRNA following cell death by mild heat treatment in skim milk. Skim milk did not appear to accelerate nucleic acid degradation. While rRNA was less stable than DNA, its detection by RT-PCR may not be appropriate as an exclusive indicator of cell viability in minimally processed foods.ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform? RWarner, R. D. R. W. Carr F. K. McCleskey P. C. Johnson L. M. Elmer V. E. Davison 1991A large nontypical outbreak of Norwalk virus: gastroenteritis associated with exposing celery to nonpotable water and with Citrobacter freundii 2419-2424!Archive of International Medicine15112%The US Air Force Academy experienced a point-source outbreak of gastroenteritis originally believed to be caused by Salmonella. The overall attack rate was 48% among approximately 3000 cadets and staff. Food-specific attack rates implicated chicken salad. The odds ratio for chicken salad consumption in ill cadets was 10.7 (95% confidence interval: 8.2; 13.8). The celery component had been exposed to nonpotable water. Citrobacter freundii were statistically associated with consumption of the suspected vehicle and subsequent illness. Most aspects were consistent with the epidemiology of Norwalk gastroenteritis. However, the clinical presentation was not typical of reported outbreaks. One hundred five cadets required intravenous rehydration. Serum samples implicated Norwalk virus as the most probable cause of this outbreak. The Centers for Disease Control (Atlanta, Ga) recently began national surveillance for viral gastroenteritis. All outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with nonpotable water should be investigated for evidence of viral cause. ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Alvarez, M. E. R. T. O'Brien1982@Effects of chlorine concentration on the structure of poliovirus237-239&Applied and Environmental Microbiology431Chlorine concerntrations below 0.8 mg/liter inactivated poliovirus without causing separation of the viral of the viral components. These results indicate that the release of RNA from the capsids is the result, not the cause, of virus inactivation by chlorine.ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? 0Read, M. R. H. Rancroft J. A. Doull R. F. Parker19435Infectious hepatitis - presumedly food-borne outbreak367-370!American Journal of Public Health36ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Anderson, O.1921An epidemic of jaundice252Nordisk Hygienisk Tidskrift2ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Blackwell, J. H. J. L. Hyde1976gEffect of heat on foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in the components of milk from FMDV-infected cows77-83Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge77 not availableProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workformS|7[WSchiff, G. M. Stefanovic, G. M. Young, E. C. Sander, D. S. Pennekamp, J. K. Ward, R. L.1984Studies of echovirus-12 in volunteers: determination of minimal infectious dose and the effect of previous infection on infectious dose858-866J. Infect. Dis.1506Adolescent Adult Antibody Formation Disease Susceptibility Echovirus Infections/*transmission Enterovirus B, Human/immunology/*pathogenicity Feces/microbiology Humans Male Middle Aged RecurrenceDecA two-part study of echovirus-12 was done in volunteers. In the first part the human infectious dose of the virus was determined in 149 healthy adults with undetectable serum antibody, each of whom drank 0-330,000 plaque-forming units (pfu) of virus in 100 ml of nonchlorinated water. Infection was defined as fecal shedding of virus or significant (fourfold or greater) increases in serum antibody titer. The HID50 (i.e., the dose required for infection of 50% of the volunteers) was 919 pfu. Through statistical analysis of the data by probit transformation, a 1% human-infectious dose of 17 pfu was predicted. These results were used in the second portion of the study to determine the effect of previous infection on the infectious dose. Previously infected volunteers (those with neutralizing serum antibody) were given a dose of echovirus-12 (1,500 pfu) that had been found to infect 60% of persons with undetectable serum antibody. The presence of serum antibody caused no significant change in the percentage of volunteers infected by this dose. Furthermore, the concentration of serum antibody did not affect the rate of infection or the duration of viral shedding. These results indicate that previous infection with echovirus-12 does not provide lasting protection against reinfection.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6501929Schiff, G M Stefanovic, G M Young, E C Sander, D S Pennekamp, J K Ward, R L Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. United states The Journal of infectious diseases J Infect Dis. 1984 Dec;150(6):858-66.0022-1899 (Print)6501929eng!?/Cheesbrough, J. S. L. Barkess-Jones D. W. Brown1997KPossible prolonged environmental survival of small round structured viruses325-326Journal of Hospital Infection354Gastroenteritis not availableProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform 4?6Dombroski, C. S. L. A. Jaykus D. P. Green B. E. Farkas1999fUse of a mutant strain for evaluating processing strategies to inactivate Vibrio vulnificus in oysters592-600Journal of Food Protection626 Vibrio vulnificus is a ubiquitous marine bacterium frequently isolated from shellfish and associated with severe and often fatal disease in humans. Various control strategies to reduce the disease risk associated with V. vulnificus contamination in shellfish have been proposed. However, evaluating the efficacy of these control strategies is complicated because of the difficulty in distinguishing V. vulnificus from the high levels of background environmental Vibrio spp. The purpose of this research was to develop a model indicator V. vulnificus strain that could be readily differentiated from background microflora and used to facilitate the evaluation of processing efficacy. A spontaneous nalidixic acid-resistant strain of V. vulnificus (Vv-NA) was prepared from a wild-type parent (Vv-WT) using selective plating techniques. Vv-NA was very similar to Vv-WT with respect to biochemical characteristics, appearance on selective plating media, detection limits using most probable number and polymerase chain reaction, and growth rate. In comparative freeze inactivation studies on pure cultures, Vv-WT and Vv-NA had similar freeze inactivation profiles at -20 degrees C (conventional freezing), at -85 degrees C (cold blast freezing), and in liquid nitrogen (cryogenic freezing). In oyster homogenates artificially inoculated with Vv-NA, the organism was inactivated 95 to 99% after freezing, irrespective of freezing temperature. Thermal inactivation comparisons of pure cultures of Vv-WT and Vv-NA using the capillary tube method revealed statistically significant differences in D values at 47 degrees C (2.2 versus 3.0 min, respectively) and 50 degrees C (0.83 versus 0.56 min, respectively), but nearly identical values at 52 degrees C (0.21 versus 0.22 min, respectively). However, these D values were notably higher than those reported by other investigators and hence provided a conservative means by which to evaluate thermal inactivation. In oyster homogenates seeded with Vv-NA, D values of 1.3 +/- 0.09 min and 0.41 +/- 0.01 min were obtained at 46 degrees C and 48 degrees C, respectively. This study demonstrated that Vv-NA is readily enumerated and could be used as a surrogate for evaluating the degree of V. vulnificus inactivation provided by freezing and thermal treatments of oyster homogenates.ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform?(Allard, A. R. Girones, P. Juto G. Wadell1990HPolymerase chain reaction for detection of adenoviruses in stool samples 2659-2667 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2812The usefulness of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for diagnosing adenovirus infections was investigated. Several primers, including primers specific for the hexon-coding region and for enteric adenovirus types 40 and 41, were evaluated. The PCR method was validated against cell culturing in routine diagnostic work and against restriction enzyme analysis of viral DNA. Sixty diagnostic specimens were selected for evaluation by the PCR method. Twenty of the 60 specimens were found positive on the basis of cytopathic effects and latex agglutination (Adenolex [Orion Diagnostica, Helsinki, Finland]), and 16 were identified and typed as adenoviruses by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. PCR was performed on all 60 specimens in parallel directly on diluted stool samples and on viral DNA extracted from cells inoculated with the same stool samples. When the general hexon primers were used 51 of the 60 specimens from infected cell cultures were found positive by PCR, whereas only 13 specimens were found positive when PCR was performed directly on stool samples. With the use of selective primers for enteric adenoviruses 16 of the 60 cell cultures were found to exhibit amplification products by PCR, whereas 4 were detected in stool samples. None of the 60 specimens were found positive by PCR when an adenovirus type 40-specific primer pair was used. PCR was found to be a fast, sensitive, and reliable method for the detection of adenoviruses in diarrheal disease, provided the amplifications were performed directly on diluted stool samples. ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?*Murphy, W. J. V. M. Petrie S. D. Work, Jr.19467Outbreak of infectious hepatitis, apparently milk-borne169-173!American Journal of Public Health36ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform? Fraser, R.1931&A study of epidemic catarrhal jaundice396-411!Canadian Journal of Public Health22ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?'Burns, K. F. D. F. Shelton E. W. Grogan19582Bat rabies: experimental host transmission studies452-466%Annals of New York Academy of Science70 not availableProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?Centers for Diseases Control1987<Outbreak of viral gastroenteritis--Pennsylvania and Delaware709-711 Mobidity Mortality Weekly Report3643ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform? Anonymous19934Foodhandlers implicated in Denver hepatitis outbreak1-3Food Protection Report91ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workformj?KGray, J. J. J. Green C. Cunliffe C. Gallimore J. V. Lee K. Neal D. W. Brown1997eMixed genogroup SRSV infections among a party of canoeists exposed to contaminated recreational water425-429Journal of Medical Virology524SRSVs; gastroenteritis; RT-PCR; genogrouping; polymerase chain-reaction; round-structured viruses; human enteric caliciviridae; Norwalk-like viruses; viral gastroenteritis; genomic diversity; sequence; expression; diagnosis; outbreakHSamples of faeces collected from a party of canoeists involved in a gastroenteritis outbreak were examined by electron microscopy and RT-PCR for evidence of infection with SRSVs. A broadly reactive primer pair was used to detect SRSVs followed by application of genogroup-specific primers to SRSV-positive specimens. Exposure data were collected by means of a questionnaire. SRSVs were detected in 1/4 specimens examined by EM and 3/4 by RT-PCR. Genogrouping, and sequencing of PCR products revealed two distinct strains: a genogroup strain, related to the Desert Shield virus, and a genogroup II strain, related to the Lordsdale virus to be associated with the outbreak. Exposure data indicated that capsising and eating food before getting changed were associated with an increased risk of gastroenteritis and was consistent with infection following the consumption of contaminated water. This study confirms the greater sensitivity of RT-PCR for the diagnosis of SRSV infections and its utility, when incorporating genogroup-specific primers, in establishing more complex epidemiological data.ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?/Chung, H. L. A. Jaykus G. Lovelace M. D. Sobsey1998`Bacteriophages and bacteria as indicators of enteric viruses in oysters and their harvest waters37-44Water Science and Technology3812denteric viruses, bacteriophages, bacteria, oysters, shellfish, water, wastewater, indicators, RT-PCR_Reliable indicators are needed to detect enteric virus contamination of bivalve molluscan shellfish and their harvest waters. Concentrations of male-specific (Ft) coliphages, Bacteroides fragilis phages, Salmonella phages and several indicator bacteria in wastewater, estuarine receiving water and its oysters were examined for their ability to predict the presence and levels of faecal contamination and enteric viruses in oysters. Enteric viruses in oysters were detected by cell culture and RT-PCR methods. Fi coliphages, Salmonella phages, B fragilis phages and faecal indicator bacteria (faecal coliforms, E coli, enterococci and Clostridium perfringens) were generally positively associated and were highest in raw sewage and progressively lower in sewage affluent and in receiving waters at increasing distance from the wastewater discharge. Indicator levels in oysters were highest for F+ coliphages and C perfringens. One F+ RNA coliphage serotype (Group IZ) predominated in the wastewater, receiving water and oysters. Human enteric viruses were detected in 17/31 oyster samples. The levels of most indicators in oysters and water were higher when oysters were enteric virus-positive and lower when oysters were enteric virus-negative. F+ coliphages and C perfringens were the only indicators significantly associated with the presence of enteric viruses in oysters. F+ coliphages and their serotypes are promising indicators of human enteric virus contamination in oysters and their harvest waters. (C) 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of the IAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?wBeards, G. M. A. D. Campbell N. R. Cottrell J. S. M. Peiris N. Rees R. C. Sanders J. A. Shirly H. C. Wood T. H. Flewett1984hEnzyme-linked immunosorbent assays based on polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies for rotavirus detection248-254 Journal of Clinical Microbiology192JWe describe two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for rotavirus antigen in feces, which were designed to be as sensitive and specific as possible, and easy to use anywhere. Both are indirect methods, using the antibody capture method, but the second assay utilizes a rotavirus group-specific monoclonal "detecting" antibody instead of the hyperimmune polyvalent guinea pig antisera used in the first assay. Both tests were found to be more sensitive than electron microscopy for detecting virus. To develop these tests, solid phase, antiserum production methods, treatment of the test antigen with EDTA, substrate, stability of reagents, and the need for confirmatory "blocking" tests were all examined. The first assay described is that used at present by the World Health Organization for their worldwide diarrheal disease control program.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?Ballance, G. A.19544Epidemic of infective hepatitis in an Oxford college 1071-1074British Medical Journal1ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform? Hallgren, R.1942jEpidemic hepatitis in the county of Vasterbotten in northern Sweden: an epidemiological and clinical study5-103#Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplement140ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?7Callis, J. J. J. L. Hyde J. H. Blackwell H. R. Cunliffe1975BSurvival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in milk and milk products181-191/Bulletin du Office International des Epizooties83 not availableProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform? Cimons, M.1995@Hepatitis A vaccine licensed, progress for rotavirus, parvovirus324-326ASM News617 not availableProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workformF? Centers for Disease Control1992$Hepatitis surveillance report No. 54%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report54ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?!LKukkula, M. P. Arstila M. L. Klossner L. Maunula C. H. Bonsdorff P. Jaatinen1997,Waterborne outbreak of viral gastroenteritis415-418,Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 294=Enteric viruses; PCR; enteroviruses; enteroviruses; infectionA waterborne epidemic took place in a Finnish municipality in April 1994. Some 1500-3000 people, i,e. 25-50% of the population, had symptomatic acute gastroenteritis, Laboratory findings confirmed adenovirus, a Norwalk-like agent, small round viruses (SRV), and group A and C rotaviruses as causative agents, Norwalk virus being the main cause of the outbreak, The epidemic was most probably associated with contaminated drinking water. The groundwater well, situated in the embankment of a river, was contaminated by polluted river water during the spring flood, A back how from the river to the well had occurred via a forgotten drainage pipe.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?"%McKillip, J. L. L. A. Jaykus M. Drake1998srRNA stability in heat-killed and UV-irradiated enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157 :H7 4264-4268&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6411mDifferentiation of viable cells from nonviable cells is of considerable importance in the development of methods to detect foodborne pathogens, To study the suitability of 16S rRNA as an indicator of cell viability in nucleic acid-based detection assays, we examined rRNA stability in two representative foodborne pathogens, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus, which mere inactivated by extreme heat, moderate heat, and UV irradiation. Cell death under all conditions was confirmed by a failure to grow in brain heart infusion broth after incubation for 48 h at 37 degrees C. rRNA stability was monitored by a Northern blot analysis, and detection was evaluated by using reverse transcription (RT)-PCR performed with two primer sets (which produced 325- and 1,400-bp amplicons). rRNA of neither pathogen was detected by Northern blot analysis and RT-PCR after cells mere killed by autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 15 min. in contrast, intact rRNA of both pathogens were detected by Northern blotting and could be amplified by RT-PCR up to 48 h after cells were killed by heat treatment at 80 degrees C and UV irradiation at 254 nm, rRNA was a suitable target molecule for monitoring bacterial viability under extreme heat conditions, but the presence of rRNA was not correlated with viability following moderate heat inactivation or UV irradiation of cells.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform#?$Brown, V. K. B. H. Robertson1990Immunoselection of clinical specimens containing virus followed by polymerase chain reactor amplification and rapid direct sequencing262-264 BioTechniques83 no abstractProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?%-Kaufman, G. G. V. M. Sborov W. P. Havens, Jr.19528Outbreak of infectious hepatitis - presumably food-borne993-995+Journal of the American Medical Association149ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?& Bellander, J.19418Observations on an epidemic of jaundice during 1939-1940 1169-1181Svenska Lakartidningen38ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?',Chang, P. W. O. C. Liu L. T. Miller S. M. Li19719Multiplication of human enteroviruses in Northern Quahogs 1380-1384@Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine136 not availableProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?(TMurphy, A. M. G. S. Grohmann P. J. Christopher W. A. Lopez G. R. Davey R. H. Millsom1979RAn Australia-wide outbreak of gastroenteritis from oysters caused by Norwalk virus329-33Medical Journal of Australia27At least 2000 persons were involved in an Australia-wide outbreak of oyster-associated food poisoning in June and July, 1978. At the time, this episode presented a major health risk to the community as a whole and has subsequently posed a serious economic problem for the oyster farming and distributing industry. Although bacteriological investigations indicated some batches of oysters were contaminated by sewage, no bacterial cause could be established. The causative organism was shown to be Norwalk virus, a known cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis. This virus was found in 39% of faecal specimens examined by electron microscopy and an antibody response was demonstrated by immune electron microscopy in 75% of paired sera tested. Norwalk virus has not been identified previously outside the United States of America and has not been linked to food-borne gastroenteritis before. Purification of oysters and other measures have been instituted to prevent a recurrence of the outbreak. ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform)?) Todd, E. C. D1992AFoodborne diseases in Canada- a 10-year summary from 1975 to 1984123-132Journal of Food Protection552Foodborne-diseases, food-contamination, bacteria, chemicals, parasites, toxins, etiology, morbidity, mortality, history, trends, CanadaTen years of foodborne disease data from 1975 to 1984 in Canada were examined. Microorganisms, particularly Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens and Bacillus cereus, were the main etiologic agents, but diseases also resulted from contamination of food with chemicals and parasites or food containing naturally occurring plant and animal toxins. An average of 5.6 deaths per year was recorded, with Salmonella, Clostridium botulinum, and Listeria monocytogenes responsible for most of them. The foods involved was, in general, potentially hazardous items, such as meat and poultry. Where information is known, most of the problems associated with foodborne illness occurred at foodservice establishments, but the impact of mishandling in homes and food processing establishments was also great. Incidents of microbiological etiology tended to peak in the summer months, particularly those caused by Salmonella, S. aureus, Campylobacter, and B. cereus.ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workformW?*"Sugieda M. K. Nakajima S. Nakajima1996|Outbreaks of Norwalk-like virus-associated gastroenteritis traced to shellfish: coexistence of two genotypes in one specimen339-346Epidemiology and Infection1163Immune electron-microscopy; polymerase chain-reaction; round-structured viruses; viral gastroenteritis; snow mountain; organization; immunoassay; sequence; agentWe determined the nucleotide sequences of Norwalk-like viruses in 10 PCR products from stool or oyster specimens obtained from four outbreaks of gastroenteritis in which shellfish was suspected as the cause in Shizuoka prefecture in Japan between 1987-94. The sequences were determined from nucleotide positions 4561-4852 (292 bp) in the polymerase region. Two types of sequences were detected. One (genotype 1) had 87% sequence homology with the prototype Norwalk virus, and the other (genotype 2) had 59% sequence homology. The sequences from isolates belonging to the same genotype were almost the same regardless of the year of isolation. Because sequences of 2 genotypes were detected in 2 of the 4 outbreaks, nested PCR was performed with genotype-specific primers to detect the presence of 2 genotypes in the same specimen. In 5 of 10 specimens, PCR bands were detected with both genotype-specific primers, indicating the coexistence of 2 genotypes in 1 specimen. We also detected two genotypes of Norwalk-like virus in an oyster from a sample implicated in one of the outbreaks which may provide direct evidence of oysters as the cause of the gastroenteritis.ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform{?,OLefkowitz, A. G. S. Fout G. Losonsky S. S. Wasserman E. Israel J. G. Jr. Morris1992A serosurvey of pathogens associated with shellfish: prevalence of antibodies to Vibrio species and Norwalk virus in the Chesapeake Bay region369-380 American Journal of Epidemiology1354Recent concerns regarding the safety of shellfish consumption have focused on the risk posed by naturally occurring marine bacteria such as Vibrio species and by viruses such as Norwalk and related agents. Despite the widespread environmental presence of Vibrio species in the Chesapeake Bay, the rate of reported infections remains low; there have also been no reports of major Norwalk outbreaks associated with shellfish in this area. As infections with these agents may not always be recognized because of difficulties in making the diagnosis and/or their mild or subclinical presentation, a serosurvey was conducted among healthy volunteers living in the Chesapeake Bay region. Serum and questionnaire data were collected during the fall of 1987 from 267 persons with varying levels of exposure to shellfish: shellfish industry workers, persons attending a local seafood festival, and Seventh-day Adventists (who traditionally abstain from eating shellfish). In comparisons among groups, a significant association could not be demonstrated between shellfish consumption or contact and antibody response to Vibrio cholerae O1 or Norwalk virus. Rates of seropositivity were high for both agents (up to 22% seropositive with a V. cholerae O1 Inaba vibriocidal assay, 14% with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for cholera toxin, and up to 70% seropositive with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for antibodies to Norwalk virus); the basis for these responses in population-based studies remains to be determined. Shellfish industry workers did have a significantly elevated antibody response to the unencapsulated phase variant of Vibrio vulnificus as compared with the other groups studied. Infection with V. vulnificus may be relatively common among persons with high levels of exposure to shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform ?-YBruguera, M. J. M. Bayas A. Vilella C. Tural A. González J. Vidal R. Dal-Ré L. Salleras1996YImmunogenicity and reactogenicity of a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine in young adults 1407-1411Vaccine1415#(Original) Immunogenicity; HAV; HBVThe aim of this study was to assess the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of a combined vaccine against hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) in young healthy adults. A total of 150 subjects (20 +/- 1.4 years; 111 females and 39 males) negative for anti-HAV, anti-HBs, anti-HBc and HBsAg markers, were enrolled and randomized to received the study vaccine from one of the three lots under double blind conditions. Three doses of the combined vaccine were administered by intramuscular route (deltoid) following a 0-, 1- and 6 months schedule. Each dose of 1 ml contained at least 720 ELISA Units of HAV antigen (Strain HM175) and 20 micrograms of recombinant HBsAg. Blood samples for anti-HAV (ELISA), anti-HBs (RIA) and transaminases determinations were obtained 1 month after the administration of each dose and before to the administration of the third dose (month 6). Local and general reactions were recorded by the vaccinee on the day of each vaccination and for the three following days on symptom sheets. A total of 147 subjects completed the study. There were not statistically significant differences between groups regarding to immunogenicity. All subjects had seroconverted [geometric mean titres (GMT): 1311 mIU ml-1] for hepatitis A component following the second dose; GMT increased to 8895 mIU ml-1 after the third dose. Seroconversion rates for hepatitis B component were 98% (GMT, 104 mIU ml-1) after the second dose and 100% after the third dose (GMT, 7097 mIU ml-1). There were not statistically significant differences between groups regarding to incidence of local and general symptoms. Soreness at the injection site and headache were the most commonly local and general symptoms reported, following 42% and 11% of the doses, respectively. This vaccine when given to young adults was well tolerated and induced high immunogenic response, similar to that obtained by hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccines administered separately in previously reported trials. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?.Clark, W. D. Sachs H. Williams19587An outbreak of infectious hepatitis on a college campus268-2791American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene7ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?/ Dohmen, A.1941\Klinische und epidemiologische Beobachtungen bei gehauften Auftreten von Hepatitis Epidemica532-537Deutsch Militararzt6ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?0 Cliver, D. O.19670Enterovirus detection by membrane chromatography139-141*Transmission of viruses by the water routeBerg, G.New York!Interscience, (John Wiley & Sons)ProCite Record Number: 60Book Chapter workform?1ESóckett, P. N. J. M. Cowden S. Le Baigue D. Ross G. K. Adak H. Evans1993>Foodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1989-1991R159-173Communicable Diseases Report312This review summarises reports of food poisoning, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and other acute foodborne illness to the PHLS Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, and notifications of food poisoning collated by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, in the period 1989-1991. During this period there were continuing rises in notifications of food poisoning and reports of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis. There was considerable success in the control of foodborne listeriosis. Newly emerging pathogens, such as Vero cytotoxin producing Escherichia coli, became more important. There was unprecedented scrutiny of the salmonella data by experts and politicians, reflecting continuing concern over the role of eggs as well as poultry meat in the increase of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 infection. This concern, along with advances in information technology, has led to developments in the collection and dissemination of information which continue to be implemented. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform4?3 Jaykus, L. A.1997ZEpidemiology and detection as options for control of viral and parasitic foodborne disease529-539Emerging Infectious Diseases34GHuman enteric viruses and protozoal parasites are important causes of emerging food and waterborne disease. Epidemiologic investigation and detection of the agents in clinical, food, and water specimens, which are traditionally used to establish the cause of disease outbreaks, are either cumbersome, expensive, and frequently unavailable or unattempted for the important food and waterborne enteric viruses and protozoa. However, the recent introduction of regulatory testing mandates, alternative testing strategies, and increased epidemiologic surveillance for food and waterborne disease should significantly improve the ability to detect and control these agents. We discuss new methods of investigating foodborne viral and parasitic disease and the future of these methods in recognizing, identifying, and controlling disease agents.ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform\?43Chapman, N. M. S. Tracy C. J. Gauntt U. Fortmueller1990tMolecular detection and identification of enteroviruses using enzymatic amplification and nucleic acid hybridization843-850 Journal of Clinical Microbiology285*Analysis of enteroviral genomes has revealed that the 5' nontranslated region is highly conserved, providing consensus sequences for the design of oligonucleotides which should anneal to most, if not all, human enteroviral RNAs. We designed and used a pair of such generic primers to enzymatically amplify cDNA from coxsackievirus group B types 1 through 6, poliovirus types 1 through 3, 4 coxsackievirus A types, and 29 echoviruses. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products generated with these enteroviral primers were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis, Southern blotting, or slot blot hybridization. A genotype-specific PCR was used to detect coxsackievirus B3, to the exclusion of other enteroviruses, by using a coxsackievirus B3 genome-specific primer pair that was derived from sequences coding for part of a capsid protein. A technique is demonstrated by which individual genotypes, for which no sequence information is known, can be identified by high-criterion hybridization analysis following amplification with generic enterovirus PCR primers. ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?5Gard, S.1957 Discussion241-243Hepatitis FrontiersHartman, F. W. Ed. Boston, MALittle, Brown & CompanyProCite Record Number: 70Book Chapter workform?6 Hallgren, R.1943GEpidemic hepatitis in the county of Vasterbotten in northern Sweden, II22-35Acta Medica Scandinavica 115ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform ?7 Cliver, D. O.1980Agricultural crops: pathogens141-152)Sludge-- health risks of land application7Bitton, G. B. L. Damron G. T. Edds J. M. Davidson (Ed.)Ann Arbor, MI.Ann Arbor ScienceProCite Record Number: 70Book Chapter workformF?8Center for Diseases Control1996Hepatitis Surveillance Report 4Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, Atlanta56ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?9 Anonymous1993[Gastrointestinal virus infections, England and Wales: laboratory reports, weeks 92/52-93/0110Communicable Disease Report33ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?:cMorens, D. M. R. M. Zweighaft T. M. Vernon G. W. Gary J. J. Eslien B. T. Wood R. C. Holman R. Dolin1979oA waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with secondary person-to-person spread: association with a viral agent964-966Lancet18123In December, 1976, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred at a resort camp in Colorado. Data obtained by questionnaire from 760 persons indicated that 418 (55%) had had gastroenteritis at the camp or within a week of leaving it, with peak onset within a two-day period. Symptoms included vomiting (81%), diarrhoea (65%), and fever (49%); median duration of illness was twenty-four hours. The attack-rate increased with consumption of water or ice-containing beverages. The camp water supply was found to be inadequately chlorinated and contaminated by a leaking septic tank. Although routine laboratory tests did not reveal bacterial, viral, or parasitic pathogens, immune electron microscopy detected virus-like particles in two of five diarrhoeal stool filtrates. Oral administration of one of these bacteria-free filtrates to two volunteers induced a gastrointestinal illness similar to that observed in the camp visitors.ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform ?; Jaykus, L. A.1996NThe application of quantitative risk assessment to microbial food safety risks279-293 Critical Reviews in Microbiology224Regulatory programs and guidelines for the control of foodborne microbial agents have existed in the U.S. for nearly 100 years. However, increased awareness of the scope and magnitude of foodborne disease, as well as the emergence of previously unrecognized human pathogens transmitted via the foodborne route, have prompted regulatory officials to consider new and improved strategies to reduce the health risks associated with pathogenic microorganisms in foods. Implementation of these proposed strategies will involve definitive costs for a finite level of risk reduction. While regulatory decisions regarding the management of foodborne disease risk have traditionally been done with the aid of the scientific community, a formal conceptual framework for the evaluation of health risks from pathogenic microorganisms in foods is warranted. Quantitative risk assessment (QRA), which is formally defined as the technical assessment of the nature and magnitude of a risk caused by a hazard, provides such a framework. Reproducing microorganisms in foods present a particular challenge to QRA because both their introduction and numbers may be affected by numerous factors within the food chain, with all of these factors representing significant stages in food production, handling, and consumption, in a farm-to-table type of approach. The process of QRA entails four designated phases: (1) hazard identification, (2) exposure assessment, (3) dose-response assessment, and (4) risk characterization. Specific analytical tools are available to accomplish the analyses required for each phase of the QRA. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of the conceptual framework for quantitative microbial risk assessment within the standard description provided by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) paradigm. Each of the sequential steps in QRA are discussed in detail, providing information on current applications, tools for conducting the analyses, and methodological and/or data limitations to date. Conclusions include a brief discussion of subsequent uncertainty and risk analysis methodologies, and a commentary on present and future applications of QRA in the management of the public health risks associated with the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in the food supply.ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workforma?< Chezzi, C.1996<Rapid diagnosis of poliovirus infection by PCR amplification 1722-1725 Journal of Clinical Microbiology347A single-tube, single-primer-set reverse transcription-PCR assay was developed for the rapid detection of polioviruses in infected tissue culture fluids and clinical materials. The poliovirus-specific PCR primers are located in the VP1-2A region of the poliovirus genome. They generate a 290-bp product and can be used in duplex reactions with general enterovirus primers. The primers span the region used for genotype determination, so that genotype analysis of wild-type polioviruses can be performed by direct sequencing of the PCR products. Of 125 virus isolates typed as polioviruses by neutralization assays, 125 (100%) were also positive by PCR, and of 38 isolates typed as non-polio enteroviruses by conventional techniques, 38 (100%) were also negative by PCR. The assay described here is rapid, highly sensitive, and specific and has clinical applicability in the diagnosis of poliovirus infections. ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?= Seddon, J. H.1961CAn epidemiological survey of infectious hepatitis in a country town55-60New Zealand Medical Journal60ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?>Neefe, J. R. J. Stokes, Jr.1945IAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis apparently due to a water borne agent 1063-1075+Journal of the American Medical Association128ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?? Cliver, D. O.19812Experimental infection by waterborne enteroviruses861-865J. Food Prot. 44 not availableProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform`F?@Centers for Diseases Control1996Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)VMorbidity Mortality Weekly Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta45RR-15ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?A Malcolm, R.1992QFood poisoning outbreak following gourmet function held at a hotel in St. Andrews4-6ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health Weekly Report, Scotland264ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?EMcCollum, R. W.19619An outbreak of viral hepatitis in the Mediterranean fleet902-910Military Medicine126ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?FHayward, M. L.1946<Epidemiological study of an outbreak of infectious hepatitis504-510Gastroenterology6ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workformDF?GCliver, D. O. R. J. salo1973$Thermal inactivation: animal virusesBiology Data BookII!Altman, P. L. D. S. Dittmer (Ed.) Bethseda, MD.9Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology2ndProCite Record Number: 90Book Chapter workformF?HU.S. Public Health Service1995'Food code. Food and drug administration-U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?IWorld Health Organization1992'Air travel-associated foodborne illness1ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe31ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?K%Notermans, S. A. Hoogenboom-Verdegaal1992(Existing and emerging foodborne diseases197-205*International Journal of Food Microbiology153-4ReviewFoodborne diseases, i.e. illnesses due to contaminated food, are one of the most widespread problems of the contemporary world. They are toxic or infectious by nature and are caused by agents which enter the body through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. These agents can be chemical like pesticide residues and toxic metals or biological like pathogenic microorganisms. Foods contaminated by biological agents are, however, the major cause of foodborne disease. Data recorded in different countries show that the incidence of some of these diseases has increased dramatically over the past few years, but because of under-reporting the data are of limited value and cannot be compared between countries. In most countries, individual cases of illness are usually not reported. A sentinel surveillance system, started as a pilot study in the Netherlands, was shown to be feasible for the registration of some foodborne infections. Based on this study, it can be estimated that each year Salmonella and Campylobacter cause respectively about 12,000 and 25,000 cases of acute enteritis per million. Case-control studies clearly implicate poultry products as an important source of acute enteritis. New developments in food production and changing trends in food consumption lead to the emergence of new hazards. Additionally, because the population is aging and there has been an increase in the number of individuals with underlying diseases, the state of public health is deteriorating. Campylobacter, Salmonella enteritidis and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli are examples of microorganisms that have the opportunity to increase as a consequence of intensive husbandry. Listeria monocytogenes is an example of an organism that causes disease in immunosuppressed individuals.ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?LDCohen, J. I. B. Rosenblum S. M. Feinstone J. Ticehurst R. H. Purcell1989dAttenuation and cell culture adaptation of hepatitis A virus (HAV): a genetic analysis with HAV cDNA 5364-5370Journal of Virology6312VRNA transcripts of hepatitis A virus (HAV) HM-175 cDNA from attenuated, cell culture-adapted HAV were infectious in cell culture. A full-length HAV cDNA from wild-type HAV (propagated in marmosets in vivo) was constructed. Chimeric cDNAs that contained portions of both wild-type and attenuated genomes were produced. Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was used to engineer a point mutation into the VP1 gene of attenuated HAV cDNA, so that the sequence of this capsid protein would be identical to that of the wild-type virus. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with RNA transcripts from several of the chimeric cDNAs and from the mutagenized cDNA induced production of HAV. Comparison of the growth of attenuated, wild-type, chimeric, and mutant viruses in vitro indicated that the P2-P3 (nonstructural protein) region is important for cell culture adaptation of the virus; the 5' noncoding region may also contribute to adaptation, but to a lesser extent. Inoculation of marmosets with transfection-derived virus also suggested that the P2-P3 region plays an important role in attenuation of HAV HM-175. ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?M&Dull, H. B. Doege, T. C. Mosley, J. W.1963FAn outbreak of infectious hepatitis associated with a school cafeteria475-480Southern Medical Journal56ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?NOlin, G.1947/A hepatitis outbreak presumably spread by water381-391#Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplement196ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform^?O*Coulepis, A. G. S. A. Locarnini I. D. Gust1980GIodination of hepatitis A virus reveals a fourth structural polypeptide572-574Journal of Virology352nHepatitis A virus present in the feces of two patients with naturally acquired hepatitis A was purified, radiolabeled with 125I, and analyzed by discontinuous sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In addition to the three structural polypeptides previously reported, a fourth polypeptide with a molecular weight of 14,000 was detected and shown to be a component of hepatitis A virus by immune precipitation techniques. Intact virions were also shown to sediment at 160S on sucrose gradients. These findings are consistent with hepatitis A virus being an enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae. ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?PWorld Health Organization1995DPublic health control of hepatitis A: Memorandum from a WHO meeting.15-20,Bulletin , World Health Organization, Geneva73ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?Q%Jaykus, L. A. R. DeLeon M. D. Sobsey1995QDevelopment of a molecular method for the detection of enteric viruses in oysters 1357-1362Journal of Food Protection58120enteric viruses, hepatitis A virus, PCR, oystersWDetection of enteric virus contamination of shellfish is limited by current methodology, which is time-consuming, tedious, and lacking in sensitivity due to reliance on cell culture infectivity. Alternative detection methods based on nucleic acid amplification have been hampered by high sample volumes and the presence of enzymatic inhibitors. The goal of this study was to develop methods to purify and concentrate intact virions from oyster extracts to a volume and quality compatible with viral genomic nucleic acid amplification by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Fifty-gram oyster samples were homogenized and processed by standard adsorption-elution-precipitation methodology and then seeded with 10(5)PFU of poliovirus 1 (PV1) or hepatitis A virus (HAV). Seeded viruses were concentrated by fluorocarbon extraction, polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, chloroform extraction, and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) precipitation to a volume of 100 mu l with removal of RT-PCR inhibitors. Virus recovery after elution of PEG precipitates was 50% for PV1 and 15 to 20% for HAV as evaluted by cell culture infectivity. The CTAB precipitation step yielded a concentrated sample which was directly compatible with RT-PCR reactions and capable of detecting about 100 placque=forming units (PFU) of PV1 or HAV. When 50-g oyster extracts were seeded and processed by the entire concentration and purification scheme, direct RT-PCR detection of viral genomic RNA was possible at initial inoculum levels of 10(4) PFU of HAV and 10(3) PFU of PV1, with recoveries of 1 to 5% of seeded viruses.ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform]?RWilliams, F. P. Jr. G. S. Fout1992FContamination of shellfish by stool-shed viruses: methods of detection689-696$Environmental Science and Technology264iMethods for detecting stool-shed viruses in contaminated shellfish can be categorized into three main types: adsorption-elution-precipitation, elution-precipitation, and filtration-hydroextraction. Virus assays used to detect viruses in shellfish are also discussed. Consumption of infected shellfish can lead to hepatitis A and viral gastroenteritis in humans.ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform?T6Rindge, M. E. Clem, J. D. Linker, R. E. Sherman, L. K. UnspecifiedEA case study on the transmission of infectious hepatitis by raw clamsHU. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare publication, O M 1752ProCite Record Number: 110Book Short Form workform,?U Gauld, R. L.1946Epidemiological field studies of infectious hepatitis in the Mediterranean theater of operation: II. A. Epidemic pattern; B. Outbreaks with distinctive features255-272American Journal of Hygiene43ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform?V6Daemer, R. J. S. M. Feinstone I. D. Gust R. H. Purcell1981rPropagation of hepatitis A virus in African green monkey kidney cell culture: primary isolation and serial passage388-393Infection and Immunity321Human hepatitis A virus (HAV) was propagated in primary African Green Monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) kidney (AGMK) cell cultures. Three strains of HAV were used: MS-1, SD-11, and HM-175. Cells were inoculated with marmoset-passaged material or human clinical specimens and were stained by direct immunofluorescence to establish the identity of the virus. Both clinical samples and marmoset-passaged material produced immunofluorescence. HAV antigen was found scattered throughout the cytoplasm of inoculated cultures. The HM-175 strain produced the most intense immunofluorescence. This strain of HAV had been serially passaged in cell culture seven times. Blocking experiments with paired human sera from naturally acquired HAV infections and hyperimmune chimpanzee serum from an experimentally infected animal established that the immunofluorescence was specific. The viral antigen was found to be exclusively intracellular. The interval to maximum HAV antigen expression was decreased by serial passage. The HAV strain described herein, which was recovered directly from the stool specimen of a patient with HAV in primary AGMK cell culture, may prove useful as a source of antigen for serological tests and as a candidate vaccine strain. ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform:?X+Hofmann, F. G. Wehrle H. Berthold D. Koster1992%Hepatitis A as an occupational hazardS82-S84Vaccine10 Supplement 1lFew studies have been carried out to evaluate the role of hepatitis A virus (HAV) as an occupational hazard. Our analysis of data on occupational diseases in Germany showed that hepatitis A ranks as third among infectious occupational diseases. Morbidity based on the frequency of compensation (15.2%) was in the same range as that observed for hepatitis B (19.7%). In another study, data were collected on anti-HAV prevalence among 2293 hospital workers in southwest Germany. Anti-HAV prevalence of hospital staff responsible for patient care and that of the general population were comparable, while food-handlers under the age of 30 years had a higher degree of anti-HAV prevalence. When an evaluation of anti-HAV prevalence data was carried out on persons younger than 30 years who comprised subsets of the medical staff, the relative risk was: charwomen 4.2, food-handlers 2.49, and paediatric nurses 1.84, showing that they had higher prevalence rates than nurses 1.25, physicians 1.09 and laboratory assistants 0.93. Vaccinations for the prevention of hepatitis A should therefore reach individuals that have an increased occupational risk: food-handlers, health care workers in infectious diseases and paediatrics, medical staff in laboratories handling stool samples, medical charwomen and, according to previously published work, staff of day care centres and sewerage workers. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workformw?YGCoulepis, A. G. S. A. Locarnini E. G. Westaway G. A. Tannock I. D. Gust1982ABiophysical and biochemical characterization of hepatitis V virus107-127 Intervirology183[Hepatitis A; hepatitis A virus; classification; biophysical and biochemical characteristicsBiophysical and biochemical analysis of hepatitis A virus has shown it to be a 27- to 32-nm icosahedral particle with 32 capsomers. The mature virion has a buoyant density of 1.33-1.34 g/cm3, a sedimentation coefficient of 156-160S, and is composed of four polypeptides with molecular weights of 30,000-33,000 (VP1), 24,000-27,000 (VP2), 21,000-23,000 (VP3), and 7,000-14,000 (VP4). The genome of hepatitis A virus consists of a single piece of single-stranded RNA which sediments at 32-35S and has a buoyant density of 1.64 g/cm3. The molecular weight of RNA is 2.25 x 10(6) when measured under nondenaturing conditions and 2.8 x 10(6) when measured under fully denaturing conditions. The genome contains a 40-80 nucleotide sequence of polyadenylic and is capable of infecting cell cultures. These findings, together with the observation that the virion is stable at pH 3.0 and resistant to ether and a temperature of 60 degrees for 1 h, indicate that hepatitis A virus should now be classified as an Enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?ZMason, J. O. W. R. McLean1962WInfectious hepatitis traced to the consumption of raw oysters: an epidemiological study90-111American Journal of Hygiene75ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?[Harrison, F. F.1947Binfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak, apparently waterborne622-625Archives of Internal of Hygiene79ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?\CD'Alessio, D. J. T. E. Minor C. I. Allen A. A. Tsiatis D. B. Nelson1981A study of the proportions of swimmers among well controls and children with enterovirus-like illness shedding or not shedding an enterovirus533-541 American Journal of Epidemiology1135/CHildren between the ages of less than 1 year and 15 years who visited a pediatric clinic in Madison, Wisconsin, from June 13 through September 1, 1977, were surveyed for the frequency and location of swimming they had done in the two weeks prior to the clinic visit. The study population consisted of 679 well controls, and 296 children with enteroviral-like syndromes. Throat and rectal swab specimens were collected from 241 of the ill patients and from 27 well children. Non-polio enteroviruses were recovered from 119 ill and two well individuals. Other viruses were recovered from an additional 13 ill patients. The majority of viral-like syndromes were respiratory, with or without fever and gastrointestinal symptoms. Exclusive beach swimmers had significantly (p less than 0.0005) increased relative risk (odds ratio estimate 3.41) of enterovirus illness. The highest relative risk (10.63) of enterovirus illness occurred in children less than 4 years old who were exclusive beach swimmers. Swimming in pools exclusively carried no significantly increased risk of enterovirus illness. Children with apparent viral illnesses based on clinical findings, who had no virus isolated, did not differ from well controls in the type of swimming exposure (either beaches or pools) in the two weeks prior to their clinic visit. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?^ Gust, I. D.1992&A vaccine against hepatitis A- at last345-346Medical Journal of Australia1575ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?_BCoulepis, A. G. M. F. Veale A. MacGregor M. Kornitschuk I. D. Gust1985Detection of hepatitis A virus and antibody by solid-phase radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with monoclonal antibodies119-124 Journal of Clinical Microbiology221qMonoclonal antibodies (K3-2F2 and K3-4C8) raised against hepatitis A virus were used to develop a solid-phase radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of hepatitis A virus and antibody. Assays with this pair of monoclonal antibodies were compared in parallel with similarly constructed solid-phase radioimmunoassays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in which human polyclonal serum was used. The monoclonal antibody assay proved to be more sensitive for the detection of hepatitis A virus from fecal specimens as well as for anti-hepatitis A virus immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM in sera. ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?`Dougherty, J. O. W. R. McLean1962(Viral hepatitis in New Jersey, 1960-1961704-716American Journal of Medicine32ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?aLaurell, G. G. Lofstrom1948IEpidemisk akut hepatiti ett norrlandssam halle orsakad genom Vattensmitta477-486Svenska Lakartidningen45ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?b/DiGirolamo, R. L. Wiczynski M. Daley F. Miranda1972NPreliminary observations on the uptake of poliovirus by West Coast shore crabs170-171Applied Microbiology23 not availableProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?cRegan, P. M. A. B. Margolin1997Development of a nucleic acid capture probe with reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction to detect poliovirus in groundwater 65-72Journal of Virological Methods641ggroundwater, nucleic acid capture, poliovirus, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)OThere is a need to develop a practical method for the detection of viral contaminates in water supplies. In this study, poliovirus was used as a model to develop a nucleic acid capture technique. This technique was used to recover viral RNA from concentrated groundwater samples. Poliovirus RNA was isolated using magnetic bead technology. A biotinylated oligonucleotide probe was hybridized to poliovirus-RNA in solution. Streptavidin coated magnetic beads were then added to isolate the RNA-oligonucleotide hybrid. The procedure allows for the recovery of viral RNA suitable for amplification by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). This nucleic acid capture system was effective in both concentrating, and purifying poliovirus RNA while removing environmental RT-PCR inhibitors. A detection sensitivity of one plaque forming unit (PFU) in 250 mu l of a concentrated environmental sample was routinely attained. This was the same detection level found with seeded purified water. It was shown that the sensitivity of nucleic acid capture RT-PCR was significantly greater than direct RT-PCR, when applied to environmental samples. The amplified product was sequenced to ensure specificity. Furthermore, this technique is rapid, reliable and can be readily adapted to detect other viral pathogens. Copyright (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workformG?dGCohen, J. I. J. R. Ticehurst S. M. Feinstone B. Rosenblum R. H. Purcell1987MHepatitis A virus cDNA and its RNA transcripts are infectious in cell culture 3035-3039Journal of Virology61101A full-length cDNA copy of an attenuated, cell culture-adapted hepatitis A virus (HAV HM-175/7 MK-5) genome was constructed in the PstI site of plasmid vector pBR322. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with this plasmid failed to induce the production of hepatitis A virus (HAV). The HAV cDNA was excised from pBR322 and inserted, without the oligo(dG) X oligo(dC) tails, into an RNA transcription vector to yield plasmid pHAV/7. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with pHAV/7 DNA induced HAV infection. Transfection with RNA transcripts produced in vitro from pHAV/7 yielded about 10-fold more HAV than did transfection with pHAV/7 DNA. Marmosets inoculated with transfection-derived virus developed anti-HAV antibodies and had liver enzyme patterns that closely resembled the liver enzyme patterns seen in animals inoculated with virus from a comparable level of cell culture passage. Infectious RNA transcripts from HAV cDNA should be useful for studying the molecular basis of cell culture adaptation and attenuation as well as for studying specific viral functions. ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?e0U. S, Department of Health Education and Welfare19636Hepatitis - possible common source outbreak, Minnesota8$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report1026ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?f Rabe, E. F.1947 Epidemic of infectious hepatitis2-14Medical Bulletin2ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform(?g<DiGirolamo, R. L. Wiczynski M. Daley F. Miranda C. Viehweger1972aUptake of bacteriophage and their subsequent survival in edible West Coast crabs after processing 1073-1076Applied Microbiology23 not availableProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?hWorld Health Organization1992Inactivated hepatitis A vaccine261-264WHO Weekly Epidemiology Records67ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workformF?iEGriffin, D. W. C. J. Gibson E. K. Lipp K. Riley J. H. Paul J. B. Rose1999Detection of viral pathogens by reverse transcriptase PCR and of microbial indicators by standard methods in the canals of the Florida Keys 4118-4125&Applied and Environmental Microbiology659In order to assess the microbial water quality in Canal waters throughout the Florida Keys, a survey was conducted to determine the concentration of microbial fecal indicators and the presence of human pathogenic microorganisms, A total of 19 sites, including 17 canal sites, and 2 nearshore water sites, were assayed for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens enterococci, coliphages, F-specific (F+) RNA coliphages, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, and human enteric viruses (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, echoviruses, hepatitis A viruses, Norwalk viruses, and small round-structured viruses), Numbers of coliforms ranged from <1 to 1,410, E. coli organisms from <1 to 130, Clostridium spp. from <1 to 520, and enterococci from <1 to 800 CFU/100 mi of sample, Two sites were positive for coliphages, but no F+ phages were identified. The sites were ranked according to microbial water quality and compared to various water quality standards and guidelines. Seventy-nine percent of the sites were positive for the presence of enteroviruses by reverse transcriptase PCR (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, and echoviruses). Sixty-three percent of the sites were positive for the presence of hepatitis A viruses. Ten percent of the sites were positive for the presence of Norwalk viruses. Ninety-five percent of the sites were positive for at least one of the virus groups. These results indicate that the canals and nearshore waters throughout the Florida Keys are being impacted by human fecal material carrying human enteric viruses through current wastewater treatment strategies such as septic tanks. Exposure to canal waters through recreation and work may be contributing to human health risks.ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?j Davis, D.1996HIV-1 candidate vaccines can induce antibodies which share specificity with human monoclonal antibodies capable of neutralizing primary isolates353-354Vaccine144 no abstractProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?k1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963Infectious hepatitis - Oregon10 & 16$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report122ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?lPotts, C. E. Jr.1947 Outbreak of infectious hepatitis2-10Medical Bulletin4ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?m#DiGirolamo, R. L. Liston J. Matches1977?Ionic bonding, the mechanism of viral uptake by shellfish mucus19-25&Applied and Environmental Microbiology33 not availableProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?nWorld Health Organization1993WPrevention of foodborne hepatitis A: Considerations on the vaccination of food handlers25-32WHO Weekly Epidemiology Records68ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform ?o&Sinton, L. W. R. K. Finlay P. A. Lynch1999VSunlight inactivation of fecal bacteriophages and bacteria in sewage-polluted seawater 3605-3613&Applied and Environmental Microbiology658Sunlight inactivation rates of somatic coliphages, F-specific RNA bacteriophages (F-RNA phages), and fecal coliforms were compared in seven summer and three winter survival experiments. Experiments were conducted outdoors, using 300-liter 2% (vol/vol) sewage-seawater mixtures held in open-top chambers. Dark inactivation rates (k(D)s), measured from exponential survival curves in enclosed (control) chambers, were higher in summer (temperature range: 14 to 20 degrees C) than in winter (temperature range: 8 to 10 degrees C). Winter k(D)s were highest for fecal coliforms and lowest for F-RNA phages but were the same or similar for all three indicators in summer. Sunlight inactivation rates (k(S)), as a function of cumulative global solar radiation (insolation), were all higher than the k(D)s with a consistent k(S) ranking (from greatest to least) as follows: fecal coliforms, F-RNA phages, and somatic coliphages. Phage inactivation was exponential, but bacterial curves typically exhibited a shoulder. Phages from raw sewage exhibited k(S)s similar to those from waste stabilization pond effluent, but raw sewage fecal coliforms were inactivated faster than pond effluent fecal coliforms. In an experiment which included F-DNA phages and Bacteroides fragilis phages, the k(S) ranking (from greatest to least) was as follows: fecal coliforms, F-RNA phages, B. fragilis phages, F-DNA phages, and somatic coliphages. In a 2-day experiment which included enterococci, the initial concentration ranking (from greatest to least: fecal coliforms, enterococci, F-RNA phages, and somatic coliphages) was reversed during sunlight exposure, with only the phages remaining detectable by the end of day 2. Inactivation rates under different optical filters decreased with the increase in spectral cutoff wavelength (50% light transmission) and indicated that F-RNA phages and fecal coliforms are more susceptible than somatic coliphages to longer solar wavelengths, which predominate in seawater. The consistently superior survival of somatic coliphages in our experiments suggests that they warrant further consideration as fecal, and possibly viral, indicators in marine waters.ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform t7McDonnell, G. Russell, A. D.1999?Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance147-79Clin Microbiol Rev121Anti-Infective Agents, Local/*chemistry/*pharmacology Disinfectants/*chemistry/*pharmacology Drug Resistance, Microbial Structure-Activity RelationshipJanAntiseptics and disinfectants are extensively used in hospitals and other health care settings for a variety of topical and hard-surface applications. A wide variety of active chemical agents (biocides) are found in these products, many of which have been used for hundreds of years, including alcohols, phenols, iodine, and chlorine. Most of these active agents demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity; however, little is known about the mode of action of these agents in comparison to antibiotics. This review considers what is known about the mode of action and spectrum of activity of antiseptics and disinfectants. The widespread use of these products has prompted some speculation on the development of microbial resistance, in particular whether antibiotic resistance is induced by antiseptics or disinfectants. Known mechanisms of microbial resistance (both intrinsic and acquired) to biocides are reviewed, with emphasis on the clinical implications of these reports.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=9880479wMcDonnell, G Russell, A D Review United states Clinical microbiology reviews Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 Jan;12(1):147-79.0893-8512 (Print)889119880479dSTERIS Corporation, St. Louis Operations, St. Louis, Missouri 63166, USA. gerry_mcdonnell@steris.comengV:|7%Millard, J. Appleton, H. Parry, J. V.1987Studies on heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus with special reference to shellfish. Part 1. Procedures for infection and recovery of virus from lab?q2Davis, H. L. M. Mancini M. -L. Michel R. G. Whalen1996kDNA-mediated immunization to hepatitis B surface antigen: longevity of primary response and effect of boost910-915Vaccine149bDNA vaccination; hepatitis B; plasmid DNA; direct gene transfer; humoral response; HBsAg; anti-HBs4Intramuscular (i.m.) injection of mice with plasmid DNA expression vectors containing all or part of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) gene encoding the envelope proteins induces a strong humoral response to the HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) which is sustained for up to 74 weeks without boost. After a single i.m. injection of 100 micrograms DNA, antibodies to HBsAg (anti-HBs) reach ELISA titers of 4 x 10(4) in C57BL/6 mice and 10(4) in BALB/c mice, or somewhat less in older mice. Although antibody levels induced by a single injection of DNA do not diminish significantly over time, they can be further increased 10-200-fold by boosting with a second injection of DNA or an injection of recombinant HBsAg protein. Prior injection of DNA does not affect the strength or timing of the boosting effect, suggesting that there is no immune response against the vector itself. Boosting with a second injection of DNA is possible even in BALB/c mice, which are known to have a strong cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response against an epitope on the major HBV envelope protein, indicating that possible destruction of newly transfected muscle fibers is not so quick and efficient as to abort the boosting effect. A single injection of DNA results in a stronger and longer lasting humoral response than does a single injection of recombinant protein. ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?r*Joseph, P. R. J. D. Millar D. A. Henderson19655An outbreak of hepatitis traced to food contamination188-194New England Journal of Medicine273ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?s#Seal, S. C. B. Mukherjee S. B. Bose19600Infectious hepatitis in the Gomoh railway colony67-83Indian Journal of Public Health4ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?tDingman, J. C.1916=Report of possibly milk-borne epidemic of infantile paralysis589-590NY State J. Med.16 not availableProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?uLewis, G. D. T. G. Metcalf1988Polyethylene glycol precipitation for recovery of pathogenic viruses, including hepatitis A virus and human rotavirus, from oyster, water, and sediment samples 1983-1988&Applied and Environmental Microbiology548Polyethylene glycol 6000 precipitation was found to be an effective concentration method that enhanced the chances for detecting human virus pathogens in environmental samples. Percent recoveries from eluates of fresh and estuarine waters with 8% polyethylene glycol 6000 averaged 86 for hepatitis A virus, 77 for human rotavirus Wa, 87 for simian rotavirus SA11, and 68 for poliovirus. Percent recoveries of 97, 40, 97 and 105, respectively, for the same viruses were obtained from oyster eluates by the same procedure. Percent recoveries of 97 for hepatitis A virus and 78 for human rotavirus Wa were obtained from sediment eluates containing 2 M NaNO3 with a final concentration of 15% polyethylene glycol 6000. The polyethylene glycol method was shown to be more effective than the organic flocculation method for recovery of hepatitis A virus and rotaviruses Wa and SA11, but not of poliovirus 1 in laboratory studies. In field trials, hepatitis A virus or rotavirus or both were recovered from 12 of 18 eluates by polyethylene glycol, compared with recovery from 9 of 18 eluates by organic flocculation from fresh and estuarine waters subject to pollution. ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform^?v,Burkhardt III, W. W. D. Watkins S. R. Rippey1992ZSeasonal effects on accumulation of microbiol indicator organisms by Mercenaria mercenaria826-831&Applied and Environmental Microbiology583FThe ability of hard-shelled clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) to accumulate fecal coliforms and other microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, and male-specific bacteriophages) was determined over a 1-year period. Twenty separate trails were conducted during different seasons to encompass a wide range of water temperatures. The greatest accumulation of microorganisms in hard-shelled clams occurred during certain periods in the spring, at temperatures ranging from 11.5 to 21.5 degrees C. These periods of hyperaccumulation did not always coincide for all organisms; the accumulation of bacteriophages was not predicted by the accumulation of either fecal coliforms or C. perfringens. Bacteriophages and C. perfringens showed significantly higher rates of accumulation than either the fecal coliform group or E. coli, especially during the spring. The higher incidence of human viral gastroenteritis associated with the consumption of shellfish during this period may be a result of the extraordinary concentration of certain microorganisms, including enteric viral pathogens. ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform?w1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963.Infectious hepatitis possibly due to raw clams8Hepatitis Surveillance14ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform?x%Rindge, M. E. J. O. Mason W. R. Elsea1962jInfectious hepatitis. Report of an outbreak in a small Connecticut school, due to water-borne transmission33-37+Journal of the American Medical Association180ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform9?y6Federico, G. E. Pizzigallo P. Nervo O. Ranno L. Ortona1979aRicerca dell'anticorpo contro il virus A (=HAAb) per 1'epidemiologia e la diagnosi dell/epatite A445-452-Bollettino da Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese58 not availableProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform -78:27-38.0300-8665 (Print)3074484eng|T\|7|8Fattal, B. Margalith, M. Shuval, H. I. Wax, Y. Morag, A.1987{Viral antibodies in agricultural populations exposed to aerosols from wastewater irrigation during a viral disease outbreak899-906Am J Epidemiol1255!Adolescent Adult Aerosols Agricultural Workers' Diseases/*epidemiology/etiology/immunology Antibodies, Viral/*analysis Child Child, Preschool *Disease Outbreaks Echovirus Infections/*epidemiology/etiology/immunology Epidemiologic Methods Humans Infant Israel Middle Aged Water MicrobiologyMayThe presence of antibodies to eight enteroviruses (echovirus types 4, 7, and 9, coxsackievirus types A9, B1, B3, and B4, and hepatitis A virus) and varicella-zoster virus was determined during a two-year period, 1980-1981, in paired blood samples of 777 persons in selected agricultural communities (kibbutzim) in Israel. These communities were divided into several categories on the basis of wastewater utilization for sprinkler irrigation and/or fish ponds. Among the nine viral antibodies studied, there was a consistent and significant excess of antibodies to echovirus type 4 only, particularly in the age group 0-5 years, in kibbutzim that had been exposed to aerosols from sprinkler irrigation with partially treated wastewater from nearby towns. This finding may be attributed to a major national echovirus type 4 epidemic, which had peaked shortly before the collection of the blood samples. The fact that no similar excess of the other viral antibodies studiedH?{+Burkhardt III W. W. D. Watkins S. R. Rippey1992OSurvival and replication of male-specific bacteriophages in molluscan shellfish 1371-1373&Applied and Environmental Microbiology484:The survival and replication of male-specific bacteriophages in hard-shelled clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and their homogenates were examined to further assess their potential utility as indicator organisms. Trials were conducted in the presence and absence of a suitable bacterial host, Escherichia coli HS[pFamp]R. Results of this study demonstrated that male-specific bacteriophages were unable to replicate in hard-shelled clams, with or without added host cells. In addition, the densities of these bacteriophages were stable for up to 7 days in shellfish held at ambient seawater temperatures (less than 25 degrees C). Evidence of replication, although not observed in live shellfish, was found to occur in temperature-abused shellfish homogenates and supernatants, but only when a suitable bacterial host was present. ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform?}3Eisenstein, A. B. R. D. Aach W. Jacobson A. Goldman19639An epidemic of infectious hepatitis in a general hospital171-174+Journal of the American Medical Association185ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform'?~3Bhattacharji, L. M. A. L. Saha M. A. Sampathkumaran1963mInvestigation of an outbreak of infectious hepatitis in a small town in West Bengal during July-October, 1960550-562"Indian Journal of Medical Research51ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform? Flehmig, B.1981cHepatitis A virus in cell culture II. Growth characteristics of hepatitis A virus in FRhK-4/R cells73-81#Medical Microbiology and Immunology1702The propagation and adaptation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in human embryo kidney cells (HKC) is shown. The growth curve of HAV in the first passage through HKC is compared to the growth curve in the tenth passage through HKC. It is shown that in the course of 18 passages through HKC, HAV adapted to these cells causing the virus to grow much more rapidly. The cell-bound HAV is compared to the HAV released in the cell-culture supernatant during the ninth passage through HKC. The HAV from the tenth passage through HKC is shown to be able to replicate also in a human embryo fibroblast strain (HFS). Furthermore, adaptation of the HAV to HFS is demonstrated. ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform? Hucko, M.1989SConcentration of poliovirus type I from cow milk using an adsorption-elution method283-2877Journal of Hygiene Epidemiology Microbiology Immunology333Cow milk was experimentally contaminated with a vaccine strain of poliovirus type I. A concentration procedure was utilized to assay for the virus in a milk sample using adsorption on aluminium sulphate at pH 4.5-5.5, aluminium sulphate concentration being 0.15 g. 1(-1), followed by elution with 0.1 M Na2HPO4 pH 9.5 and subsequent detection in cultured VERO cells (kidney cells from the monkey Cercopithecus aethiops). The yield of the virus ranged from 14 to 58% of the inoculated amount, the mean value being 27%.ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform?+Gauss-Muller, V. F. Lottspeich F. Deinhardt19869Characterization of hepatitis A virus structural proteins732-736Virology1552HAV particles isolated from infected cells banded at buoyant densities of 1.42, 1.32, and 1.20 g/ml, and distinctive protein patterns were established by gel electrophoresis and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. The relatively higher amounts of p30 in particles with lower buoyant densities suggest that this protein is VP0 and is part of the immature picornavirion. The protein elution profiles obtained by HPLC were virtually identical for all the HAV strains examined but differed from those of other picornaviruses. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of VP1 and VP2 was determined and aligned to the nucleotide sequence. Sequencing VP0 and VP3 was not possible, probably because the amino termini are blocked. VP1, VP3, and VP0 induced specific antibodies in rabbits. ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workformB?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963pFood-borne epidemics of infectious hepatitis C. Food-borne epidemic in a school for American Military dependents19AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)15ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968FReports of four outbreaks A. Arkansas - Benton and Washington Counties11-13Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform?)Goldstein, D. M. W. M. Hammon H. R. Viets1946GAn outbreak of polioencephalitis among Navy cadets, possibly foodborne.569-573JAMA131 not availableProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform9?Wood, G. W. M. R. Adams1992vEffects of acidification, bacterial fermentation, and temperature on the survival of rotavirus in a model weaning food52-55Journal of Food Protection551}Infant-foods, postweaning-interval, rotavirus, temperature, acidification, fermentation, antiviral-properties, heat-treatmentThe effect of acidification, bacterial fermentation, and temperature on the survival of SA-ll rotavirus in model infant weaning foods was investigated. The influence of added organic acids and of bacterial fermentation on rotavirus survival was explicable solely by the pH achieved. The rotavirus was stable at temperatures representative of tropical ambient and at pH values typical of lactic fermented foods (3.8-4.1). Starch gelatinization temperatures were sufficient to inactivate rotavirus rapidly at neutral pH. Thus, cooking would kill virus although recontamination would remain a concern. A similar lethality to that at neutral pH could be observed in acidified media at lower temperatures. Although effective against bacterial pathogens, lactic fermentation of weaning foods confers little protection against rotavirus unless combined with a mild heat treatment such as might be used prior to serving to enhance palatability.ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workformc?8Hassen, A. R. Hachicha N. Jedidi F. Agbalika P. Harteman19910A method for recovery of enteroviruses from milk261-268Arch. Inst. Pasteur Tunis683-4tA method of detection of enteric viruses in milk was studied. The high protein content of milk and the protein nature of enterovirus allowed the detection of these viruses using the organic acid flocculation method. The poliovirus type 1 (Mahoney strains) and the E.C.H.O.1 isolated from the environment were used as virus model and were inoculated to creamed, half-creamed and whole UHT commercialized milk. The method consists on a milk sample clarification with acid precipitation and centrifugation. The clarified extract is reduced to a final volume of 10 to 15 ml after addition of beef extract powder and protein precipitation. This technique allows the recovery of 26 to 36% of poliovirus type 1 and 10 to 46% of E.C.H.O.1 viruses. In this work, the ferric chloride (FeCl3), added in 0.5 to 1 mM final concentration, was used as an adjuvant for the organic acid precipitation.ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform,?`Raska, K. J. Helcl J. Jezek Z. Kubelka M. Litov K. Novak J. Radovsky V. Sery J. Zejdl V. Zikmund1966)A mil-borne infectious hepatitis epidemic413-428>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology10ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19683Reports of four outbreaks B. Logan County, Kentucky13-15Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?Hejkal, T. W. C. P. Gerba1981LUptake and survival of enteric viruses in the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus207-211&Applied and Environmental Microbiology411Uptake of poliovirus 1 by the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, was measured to assess the likelihood of contamination by human enteric viruses. Virus was found in all parts of the crab within 2 h after the crab was placed in contaminated artificial seawater. The highest concentrations of virus were found in the hemolymph and digestive tract, but the meat also contained virus. The concentration of virus in the crabs was generally less than in the surrounding water. Changes in salinity did not substantially affect the rate of accumulation. An increase in temperature from 15 to 25 degrees C increased the rates of both uptake and removal. Poliovirus survived up to 6 days in crabs at a temperature of 15 degrees C and a salinity of 10 g/kg. When contaminated crabs were boiled, 99.9% of poliovirus 1, simian rotavirus SA11, and a natural isolate of echovirus 1 were inactivated within 8 min. These data demonstrate that viruses in crabs should not pose a serious health hazard if recommended cooking procedures are used. ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workformy?aLasta, J. J. H. Blackwell A. Sadir M. Gallinger F. Marcoveccio M. Zamorano B. Ludden R. Rodriguez1992yCombined treatments of heat, irradiation, and pH effects on infectivity of foot-and-mouth disease virus in bovine tissues36-39Journal of Food Science571_Beef, foot-and-mouth-disease, food-irradiation, heat-treatment, pH, viruses, sensory-evaluationVarious traditional methods for processing meat products were examined for their virucidal effects on the A, O, and C serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Aging, curing, heating at 78 degrees C for 20 min or irradiation (1.5 Mrad, 2.4 Mrad) that did not alter the sensory characteristics of the product were used singly or in combination. The only processing treatment that was virucidal was the combination of heat and gamma irradiation.ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?7De Medici, D. F. Beneduce A. Fiore C. Scalfaro L. Croci1998VApplication of reverse transcriptase-nested-PCR for detection of poliovirus in mussels51-56*International Journal of Food Microbiology401In order to identify polioviruses in molluscs, we hereby propose a method based on precipitation with PEG 6000 followed by the use of a commercial kit (RNAfast II-Molecular System-San Diego) for the extraction and purification of viral RNA. The RT-PCR phase is followed by a second amplification using nested primers to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the method. Tests were carried out on mollusc samples spiked with Poliovirus 1. Results showed that in samples subjected only to one round of PCR it was possible to detect Poliovirus concentrations as small as 10(3)TCID50/ml. The use of nested-PCR makes the system more sensitive and specific enabling the identification of Poliovirus concentrations as small as 1 TCID50/ml. ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?Centers for Disease Control1991'Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1989-19901-21%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report403For the 2-year period 1989-1990, 16 states reported 26 outbreaks due to water intended for drinking; an estimated total of 4,288 persons became ill in these outbreaks. Giardia lamblia was implicated as the etiologic agent for seven of the 12 outbreaks in which an agent was identified. The outbreaks of giardiasis were all associated with ingestion of unfiltered surface water or surface-influenced groundwater. An outbreak with four deaths was attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, the only bacterial pathogen implicated in any of the outbreak investigations. An outbreak of remitting, relapsing diarrhea was associated with cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)-like bodies, whose role in causing diarrheal illness is being studied. Two outbreaks due to hepatitis A and one due to a Norwalk-like agent were associated with use of well water. Eighteen states reported a total of 30 outbreaks due to the use of recreational water, which resulted in illness for an estimated total of 1,062 persons. These 30 reports comprised 13 outbreaks of whirlpool- or hot tub-associated Pseudomonas folliculitis; 13 outbreaks of swimming-associated gastroenteritis, including five outbreaks of shigellosis; one outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a swimming pool; and three cases of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria. The national surveillance of outbreaks of waterborne diseases, which has proceeded for 2 decades, continues to be a useful means for characterizing the epidemiology of waterborne diseases. ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?Herrmann, J. E. D. O. Cliver1973KRapid method to determine labeling specificity of radioactive enteroviruses313-314Applied Microbiology252The specified of labeling enteroviruses with 32P-labeled NaH2PO4 or 14C-leucine can be determined by comparing the percent adsorption of infective particles and radioactivity to membrane (Millipore) filters.ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?ORuddy, S. J. R. F. Johnson J. W. Mosley J. B. Atwater M. A. Rossetti J. C. Hart1969(An epidemic of clam-associated hepatitis649-655+Journal of the American Medical Association2084 not availableProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968.Reports of four outbreaks C. Amboy, Washington16-18Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?Hoff, J. C. R. C. Becker1969ZThe accumulation and elimination of crude and clarified poliovirus suspension by shellfish53-61 American Journal of Epidemiology90 not availableProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workformJ?Bouchriti, N. S. M. Goyal1992LEvaluation of three methods for the concentration of poliovirus from oysters403-408 Microbiologica154jThree methods for the concentration of poliovirus from oyster homogenates were compared. The adsorption-elution-precipitation method gave the lowest average virus recovery (24.1%), while the beef extract elution-acid precipitation method and the non-fat dry milk elution-acid precipitation methods gave recoveries of 47.2% and 39.6%, respectively. Although the overall recovery rates with these methods were lower than those reported in previous studies, recoveries of 40-47% obtained with the elution-precipitation methods used in the present study are considered to be above average in terms of recovery efficiency. ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workformB?~Ticehurst, J. T. J. Popkin J. P. Bryan B. L. Innis J. F. Duncan A. Ahmed M. Iqbal I. Malik A. Z. Kapikian L. J. Legters, et al1992Association of hepatitis E virus with an outbreak of hepatitis in Pakistan: serological responses and pattern of virus excretion84-92Journal of Medical Virology362Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a positive-strand RNA agent, has been associated with enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Asia, Africa, and Mexico. To evaluate the role of HEV in an outbreak of hepatitis in Pakistan, we used immune electron microscopy to detect 1) antibody to HEV, for evidence of infection, and 2) virus, to determine the pattern of HEV excretion. Paired sera from 2 patients were assayed for antibody by using reference HEV: one seroconverted, an atypical finding for HEV infections; the other had high levels of anti-HEV in both sera. Virus particles with the size (29 x 31 nm) and morphology of HEV were detected in feces from 10 of 85 patients and serologically identified as HEV by using reference antibodies from an HEV-infected chimpanzee. One of these HEV-containing specimens was collected 9 days before the onset of jaundice; it was among feces from 38 outpatients with nonspecific symptoms and biochemical hepatitis, 12 of whom subsequently developed jaundice. The other 9 feces with HEV were among 36 collected within 7 days of the onset of acute icteric hepatitis; all 11 feces from days 8 to 15 were negative for HEV. Fecal concentrations of HEV appeared to be lower than those of many enteric viruses: only one specimen contained as many as 5 particles per EM grid square. It is concluded that HEV was etiologically associated with the epidemic and was predominantly excreted at very low levels during the first week of jaundice. ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?5Hill, W. F. Jr. F. E. Hamblet W. H. Benton E. W. Akin1970OUltraviolet devitalization of eight selected enteric viruses in estuarine water805-812Applied Microbiology195The effect of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the devitalization of eight selected enteric viruses suspended in estuarine water was determined. The surviving fractions of each virus were calculated and then plotted against the UV exposure time or purposes of comparison. Analytical assessment of the survival data for each virus consisted of least squares regression analysis for determination of intercepts and slope functions. All data were examined for statistical significance. when the slope function of each virus was compared against the slope function of poliovirus type 1, the analytical findings indicated that poliovirus types 2 and 3, echovirus types 1 and 11, and coxsackievirus A-9 exhibited similar devitalization characteristics in that no statistically significant difference was found (p > 0.005). Conversely, the devitalization characteristics of coxsackievirus B-1 and rovirus type 1 were dissimilar from those of poliovirus type 1 in that a statistically significant difference was found between the slope functions (P < 0.005). This observed difference in devitalization of coxsackievirus B-1 and rovirus type 1 was attributed primarily to the frequency distribution of single and aggregate virions, the geometric configuration, the size of the aggregates, and the severity of aggregation. The devitalization curve of coxsackievirus B-1 was characteristic of a retardant die-away curve. The devitalization curve of rovirus type 1 was characteristic of a multihit-type curve. The calculated devitalization half-life values for poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3; echovirus types 1 and 11; coxsackievirus types A-9 and B-1; and reovirus type 1 were 2.8, 3.1, 2.7, 2.8, 3.2, 3.1, 4.0, 4.0 sec, respectively. These basic data should facilitate an operative extrapolation of the findings to the applied situation. It was concluded that UV can be highly effective and porvide a reliable safety factor in treating estuarine water.ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workformUF?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1964Shellfish-associated infectious hepatitis A. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis - New jersey and Pennsylvania: follow-up reportAHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)30-32ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1967+Foodborne outbreaks: status report for 196716-181National Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform.?(Hyde, J. L. J. H. Blackwell J. J. Callis1975iEffect of pasteurization and evaporation on foot-and-mouth disease virus in whole milk from infected cows305-309(Canadian journal of Comparative Medicine39 not availableProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?2Biziagos, E. J. Passagot J. M. Crance R. Deloince1988NLong-term survival of hepatitis A virus and poliovirus type 1 in mineral water 2705-2710&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5411uThe survival in mineral water of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and poliovirus type 1 was compared, under controlled experimental conditions, at 4 degrees C and room temperature. Viral infectivity titers were determined by cell culture titration, while HAV antigenicity was monitored by radioimmunoassay-endpoint titration. Both viruses persisted longest at 4 degrees C. At this temperature, after 1 year of exposure, the inactivation of either HAV or poliovirus type 1 was not important. At room temperature, poliovirus type 1 was not detected after 300 days, whereas HAV was still infectious. For both temperatures, the computed regression coefficients of best-fit lines for inactivation rates for the two viruses were significantly different. The survival of HAV was also studied at 4 degrees C and room temperature in mineral water with 5- and 50-micrograms/ml protein concentrations (i.e., purity of the virus suspension) for 120 days. As shown by a comparison of the regression coefficients for the inactivation rates, the stability of HAV in mineral water depends on protein concentration and temperature. Radioimmunoassay-endpoint titration results showed inactivation patterns similar to those of cell culture titration, with the most significant reduction in HAV antigenicity at room temperature. At the two temperatures, the infectivity of HAV declined at a faster rate than the antigenicity. ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?6Hughes, J. H. A. V. Tuomari D. R. Mann V. V. Hamparian19842Latex immunoassay for rapid detection of rotavirus441-447 Journal of Clinical Microbiology203A latex agglutination (LA) test was evaluated for the detection of human rotaviruses in stool specimens. Both antiserum and immunoglobulin G (IgG)-sensitized latex particles were used, with IgG-coated beads being more sensitive for human rotavirus antigen detection. Latex beads sensitized with anti-simian-SA-11 IgG were stable for at least 8 months when stored at 4 degrees C. The sensitivity of the test was compared with that of the Rotazyme (Abbott Laboratories, Diagnostics Div., North Chicago, Ill.) test. The least number of particles detected was 9.0 X 10(5) particles by the LA test versus 4.5 X 10(5) particles by the Rotazyme test. When 10 stool specimens were serially diluted for antigen endpoint determinations, the geometric mean titer by the LA test was 592 versus 1,280 by the Rotazyme test. Forty-three stool samples positive by the Rotazyme test were all positive by the LA test, and no false negative results were detected. Unconfirmed false positive reactions ranged between 8 and 24%. The LA test for rotavirus antigen detection is direct, easy to perform, sensitive, quick, and may have application for use in diagnostic laboratories, emergency rooms, and physician's offices. ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform<?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1964gShellfish-associated infectious hepatitis C. Oyster-associated infectious hepatitis, North Carolina35-36AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)19ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform?Rawal, B. D. S. H. Godbole1964GEpidemiology of water borne infectious hepatitis in a locality in Poona439-444!Indian Journal of Medical Science18ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workformx|7j2Landry, E. F. Vaughn, J. M. Vicale, T. J. Mann, R.1982bInefficient accumulation of low levels of monodispersed and feces-associated poliovirus in oysters 1362-1369Appl. Environ. Microbiol.446Animals Bivalvia/microbiology Feces/*microbiology Ostreidae/*microbiology Poliovirus/*growth & development/isolation & purification Seawater *Water MicrobiologyDecmThe accumulation of low levels (0.002 to 0.18 PFU/ml) of both feces-associated and monodispersed poliovirus by oysters (Crassostrea virginica or C. gigas) and clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) was investigated. These levels were chosen to duplicate the conditions present in light to moderately polluted waters. Experiments were performed in both small- and large-scale flowing seawater systems, developed to mimic the natural marine habitats of shellfish. Under these experimental conditions, viral accumulation by physiologically active shellfish was only noted when water column concentrations exceeded approximately 0.01 PFU/ml. Bioaccumulation increased with increasing concentrations of both monodispersed and feces-associated viruses. At virus concentrations below this level, viruses were seldom detected in either clams or oysters. Evidence indicated that the lack of accumulation was not the result of inefficient extraction or detection methods. The modified Cat-Floc-beef extract procedure used in the experiment was found to be capable of detecting as few as 1.5 to 2.0 PFU per shellfish. Evidence is presented to indicate that an uptake-depuration equilibrium was present at virus exposure levels of 0.10 PFU/ml, but not at 0.01 PFU/ml. The results suggested that viral accumulation by shellfish may not be efficient at water column concentrations below congruent to 0.01 PFU/ml.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6297388Landry, E F Vaughn, J M Vicale, T J Mann, R Fda-224-79-2467/fd/fda Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982 Dec;44(6):1362-9.0099-2240 (Print)6297388eng?2Naik, S. R. R. Aggarwal P.N. Salunke N.N. Mehrotra1992>A large waterborne viral hepatitis E epidemic in Kanpur, India597-604 Bull. W.H.O.70ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform?PMahoney, F. J. T. A. Farley K. Y. Kelso S. A. Wilson J. M. Horan L. M. McFarland1992DAn outbreak of hepatitis A associated with swimming in a public pool613-618Journal of Infectious Diseases1654A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A was traced to a campground in Louisiana. Among 822 campers during one weekend, 20 developed hepatitis A. Case-patients ranged in age from 4 to 36 years; the highest attack rate (6.4%) was for children aged 5-9 years. A case-control study revealed that case-patients were more likely than controls to have swum in a public swimming pool on Saturday afternoon (19/19 vs. 26/38; odds ratio [OR], undefined; lower 95% confidence limit, 1.7). Case-patients were more likely than controls to have swum in the jacuzzi pool (16/19 vs. 10/26; OR, 8.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-47.1) or adult pool A (19/19 vs. 15/26; OR, undefined; lower 95% confidence limit, 2.6). Case-patients were also more likely to have swum for greater than 1 h and to have put their heads under the water. Because of the design of the filtering system of adult pool A, a cross-connection between a sewage line and the pool water intake line was possible. This outbreak may have been caused by transmission of hepatitis A through swimming; thus, swimming may serve as a mode of transmission of hepatitis A virus, especially among small children. ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workformS=|7QLiu, W. Tang, F. Fontanet, A. Zhan, L. Zhao, Q. M. Zhang, P. H. Wu, X. M. Zuo, S. Q. Baril, L. Vabret, A. Xin, Z. T. Shao, Y. M. Yang, H. Cao, W. C.2004?Long-term SARS coronavirus excretion from patient cohort, China1841-3Emerg Infect Dis1010Adult China Feces/virology Female Humans Male RNA, Viral/isolation & purification Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Risk Factors *SARS Virus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome/virology Sputum/virology Time Factors *Virus SheddingOctrThis study investigated the long-term excretion of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus in sputum and stool specimens from 56 infected patients. The median (range) duration of virus excretion in sputa and stools was 21 (14-52) and 27 (16-126) days, respectively. Coexisting illness or conditions were associated with longer viral excretion in stools.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15504274wLiu, Wei Tang, Fang Fontanet, Arnaud Zhan, Lin Zhao, Qiu-Min Zhang, Pan-He Wu, Xiao-Ming Zuo, Shu-Qing Baril, Lawrence Vabret, Astrid Xin, Zhong-Tao Shao, Yi-Ming Yang, Hong Cao, Wu-Chun U19AI51915/AI/United States NIAID Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United States Emerging infectious diseases Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Oct;10(10):1841-3.1080-6040 (Print)15504?1Department of National Health and Welfare, Canada1965&Infectious hepatitis, British Columbia24-25Epidemiological Bulletin9ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workform?&Zejdl, M. M. Litov J. Helcl O. Lhotsky1965-Infectious hepatitis epidemic spread by water374-386>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology9ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workform?Jubb, G.1915,A third outbreak of poliovirus at West Kirby67Lancet1 not availableProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workformq?)Hughes, M. S. P. V. Coyle J. H. Connolly 19928Enteroviruses in recreational waters of Northern Ireland529-536Epidemiology and Infection1083Virus surveillance of Northern Ireland recreational waters, between April 1986 and May 1989 demonstrated widespread enteroviral contamination of coastal and inland waters. In 1986, enteroviruses were detected in 4 of 46 (8.7%) water samples, collected from 6 coastal bathing waters. In 1987, 49 of 107 (45.8%) samples, from 16 coastal bathing waters, yielded enteroviruses; 33 of the enterovirus positive samples passed one or both of the coliform standards outlined by the European Economic Community (EEC) bathing water directive (76/160/EEC). Enteroviruses were also detected in 33 of 39 (84.6%) samples tested from 3 inland recreational waters. ProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?Hurst, C. J. T. Goyke1986GImproved method for recovery of enteric viruses from wastewater sludges 1321-1324Water Research2010fVirus; enteric virus; sludge beef extract; aluminium chloríde; organic flocculation; recovery methodsaVarious parameters involved in recovering indigenous enteric viruses from wastewater sludges aided by buffered beef extract elution and subsequent organic flocculation concerntration were examined. a statistically significant (P = 0.03) reciprocal correlation was found to exist between the ratio of eluant to sludge solids content used during the elution step, and the efficiency of subsequently concertrating viruses from the produced sludge eluates by means of organic flocculation. A hypothesis is proposed by which to explain the concentration of viruses during beef extract-induced organic flocculation.ProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?0Hernandez, R. H. Jr. J. H. Greenberg R. E. Olson1966FAn outbreak infectious hepatitis probably due to contamination of food247-252 American Journal of Epidemiology842 not availableProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?Kaplan, A. S. J. L. Melnick1952QEffect of milk and cream on the thermal inactivation of human poliomyelitis virus525-534!American Journal of Public Health42 not availableProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?=Tani, N. K. Shimamoto K. Ichimura Y. Nishii S. Tomita Y. Oda 1992#Enteric virus levels in river water45-48Water Research261ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workformA?9Hyypiä, T. P. Stålhandske R. Vainionpää U. Pettersson19840Detection of enteroviruses by spot hybridization436-438 Journal of Clinical Microbiology193LA cloned partial cDNA copy of the coxsackievirus B3 genome was used for detecting enteroviruses in infected cells by employing a nucleic acid hybridization procedure. Cells infected with coxsackieviruses A and B, echovirus, and poliovirus gave positive hybridization signals, whereas cells infected with nonrelated viruses did not. ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1965JSpecial report : Oklahoma. Common source outbreak in a consolidated school14AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)23ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968:Reports of three outbreaks B. washington Island, Wisconsin16-18Hepatitis Surveillance29ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform ?Kaplan, A. S. J. L. Melnick1954XEffect of milk and other dairy products on the thermal inactivation of coxsackie viruses 1174-1184!American Journal of Public Health44 not availableProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workforml?Inouye, S. R. Hondo19907Microplate hybridization of amplified viral DNA segment 1469-1472 Journal of Clinical Microbiology286We have developed a simple hybridization method for a DNA segment which is amplified by the polymerase chain reaction: after heat denaturation, the amplified DNA segment with a length of more than 300 bases is adsorbed to microplate wells in the presence of 1.5 M NaCl or 0.5 M ammonium sulfate; the immobilized DNA is hybridized with a biotin-labeled DNA probe; then, the hybridization signal is detected by streptavidin-conjugated beta-galactosidase or peroxidase. This method has several advantages over the conventional dot blot hybridization method: (i) radioisotopes are not used, (ii) synthetic oligonucleotide for the probe is not needed, (iii) the time required for washing of the solid phase is greatly reduced, and (iv) the baking and prehybridization procedures are eliminated. By this method, we were able to detect viral genomes in vesicle specimens from patients infected with varicella-zoster virus. ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1965#Reports of common vehicle epidemics16-19AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)2412, 13ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 1968321National Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform2?ZKaplan, J. E. G. W. Gary R. C. Baron N. Singh L. B. Schonberger R. Feldman H. B. Greenberg1982xEpidemiology of Norwalk gastroenteritis and the role of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis756-761Annals of Internal Medicine966 Pt 1Outbreaks of Norwalk gastroenteritis, which may involve persons of all ages, occur during all seasons and in various locations. Waterborne, foodborne, and person-to-person modes of transmission have been described, and secondary person-to-person transmission is common. Outbreaks generally end in about 1 week; longer outbreaks occur only when new groups of susceptible persons are introduced, usually in the setting of a persistent common source of infection. The illness is generally mild and characterized by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Vomiting is the predominant symptom among children, whereas diarrhea is commoner among adults. Forty-two percent of 74 outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis investigated by the Centers for Disease Control from 1976 to 1980 were attributed to the Norwalk virus. The rest resembled Norwalk outbreaks clinically and epidemiologically and were probably caused by 27-nm viral agents similar to the Norwalk virus. ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workformZ?)Ansari, S. A. S. R. Farrah G. R. Chaudhry1992uPresence of human immunodeficiency virus nucleic acids in wastewater and their detection by polymerase chain reaction 3984-3990&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5812'The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) released by infected individuals or present in human and hospital wastes can potentially cause contamination problems. The presence of HIV-1 was investigated in 16 environmental samples, including raw wastewater, sludge, final effluent, soil, and pond water, collected from different locations. A method was developed to extract total nucleic acids in intact form directly from the raw samples or from the viral concentrates of the raw samples. The isolated nucleic acids were analyzed for the presence of HIV-1 by using in vitro amplification of the target sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. HIV-1-specific proviral DNA and viral RNA were detected in the extracted nucleic acids obtained from three wastewater samples by this method. The specificity of the PCR-amplified products was determined by Southern blot hybridization with an HIV-1-specific oligonucleotide probe, SK19. The isolated nucleic acids from wastewater samples were also screened for the presence of poliovirus type 1, representing a commonly found enteric virus, and simian immunodeficiency virus, representing, presumably, rare viruses. While poliovirus type 1 viral RNA was found in all of the wastewater samples, none of the samples yielded a simian immunodeficiency virus-specific product. No PCR-amplified product was yielded when wastewater samples were directly used for the detection of HIV-1 and poliovirus type 1. The wastewater constituents appeared to be inhibitory to the enzymes reverse transcriptase and DNA polymerase. ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?$Heinz, B. A. D. O. Cliver G. L. Hehl1986DEnumeration of enterovirus particles by scanning electron microscopy71-83J. Virol. Methods141QVirion enumeration; scanning electron microscopy; electrophoresis; picornavirusesrEnumeration of virus particles requires relatively concentrated and uniformly dispersed virus preparations, which is difficult to achieve by the usual methods of negative staining and transmission electron microscopy. We have developed an electrophoretic method that concentrates enteroviruses onto a polycarbonate membrane for examination by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. The electrophoretic apparatus comprises three chambers in electrical series, each containing 3.5 ml of dilute buffer. The center chamber is inoculated with virus. A 15-nm porosity membrane, which does not pass virus, separates the center from the side chambers. A constant current is applied, and chilled buffer is pumped past the electrodes for 2 h. The virus suspension is recovered, and changes in titer (or radioactivity if labeled virus is used) due to electrophoresis are measured. Buffer pH, relative to the viral isoelectric points, determines the direction of virus migration. Particle counts are calculated from the mean of 25 randomly chosen fields photographed at 35-60,000 X magnification and related to titers measured by plaque assay.ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1966;Infectious hepatitis - Nassau County, Long Island, New York9-10$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report152ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972RReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A A. Sumter, South Carolina6-7Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?Katz, M. S. A. Plotkin19677Minimal infective dose of attenuated poliovirus for man 1837-1840!American Journal of Public Health57 not availableProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workformU?Dee, S. W. J. C. Fogleman1992@Rates of inactivation of waterborne coliphages by monochloramine 3136-3141&Applied and Environmental Microbiology589hA sophisticated water quality monitoring program was established to evaluate virus removal through Denver's 1-million-gal (ca. 4-million-liter)/day Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant. As a comparison point for the reuse demonstration plant, Denver's main water treatment facility was also monitored for coliphage organisms. Through the routine monitoring of the main plant, it was discovered that coliphage organisms were escaping the water treatment processes. Monochloramine residuals and contact times (CT values) required to achieve 99% inactivation were determined for coliphage organisms entering and leaving this conventional water treatment plant. The coliphage tested in the effluent waters had higher CT values on the average than those of the influent waters. CT values established for some of these coliphages suggest that monochloramine alone is not capable of removing 2 orders of magnitude of these specific organisms in a typical water treatment facility. Electron micrographs revealed one distinct type of phage capable of escaping the water treatment processes and three distinct types of phages in all. ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?'Jansen, R. W. J. E. Newbold S. M. Lemon1985mCombined immunoaffinity cDNA-RNA hybridization assay for detection of hepatitis A virus in clinical specimens984-989 Journal of Clinical Microbiology226To apply cDNA-RNA hybridization methods to the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in clinical materials, we developed a two-step method in which a microtiter-based, solid-phase immunoadsorption procedure incorporating a monoclonal anti-HAV capture antibody was followed by direct blotting of virus eluates to nitrocellulose and hybridization with 32P-labeled recombinant HAV cDNA. This immunoaffinity hybridization method is simple and involves few sample manipulations, yet it retains high sensitivity (10- to 30-fold more than radioimmunoassay) and is capable of detecting approximately 1 X 10(5) to 2 X 10(5) genome copies of virus. The inclusion of the immunoaffinity step removes most contaminating proteins and thus facilitates subsequent immobilization of the virus for hybridization. It also permits positive hybridization signals to be related to specific antigens and adds a level of specificity to the hybridization procedure. When the method was applied to 23 fecal specimens collected from individuals during week 1 of symptoms due to hepatitis A, 13 specimens were found to be reproducibly positive for HAV RNA by immunoaffinity hybridization, whereas only 11 contained viral antigen detectable by radioimmunoassay. ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?EReynolds, R. D. J. J. Simerville K. S. Fiore C. A. keck D. C. Metheny1968Freeze-ball hepatitis48-49Archives of Internal Medicine1221 not availableProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972TReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A B. Worcester, Massachusetts7-8Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?-Knapp, A. C. Godfrey Jr., E. S. W. L. Aycock1926An outbreak of poliomyelitis635-639JAMA87 not availableProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1992cInactivation of poliovirus type 1 in mixed human and swine wastes and by bacteria from swine manure 2016-2021&Applied and Environmental Microbiology586The persistence of poliovirus type 1 (PO1) in mixed septic tank effluent and swine manure slurry was determined, and the antiviral effects of several bacterial cultures isolated from swine manure slurry were demonstrated. In two field experiments, PO1 was consistently inactivated more rapidly in the mixed waste than in the control Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (D-PBS). D values (time [in days] for a 90% reduction of virus titer) were 18.7 and 29.9 for the mixed waste and 56.5 and 51.8 for the D-PBS control, respectively. The virus inactivation in the mixed waste was temperature dependent. A comparison of PO1 inactivation in raw mixed waste, autoclaved mixed waste, and bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed waste at the same pH and temperatures provided an initial demonstration that the virus inactivation in the mixed waste is related, at least in part, to microbial activity. At 25 degrees C, the D value was 6.8 for the mixed waste, 11.2 for the autoclaved mixed waste, and 10.5 for the bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed waste. At 37 degrees C, D values were 1.3, 3.9, and 3.1 for these three suspending media, respectively. Three bacterial isolates which had shown antiviral effects in a screening test each caused virus inactivation in autoclaved mixed waste, in which the effect of other microorganisms was excluded. Inhibition of PO1 inactivation by protease inhibitors suggests that the virus inactivation in the mixed waste was due in part to proteolytic enzymes produced by bacteria in the waste. ProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?"Jansen, R. W. C. Siegl S. M. lemon1990pMolecular epidemiology of human hepatitis A virus defined by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method 2867-2871PProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 878We describe an immunoaffinity-linked nucleic acid amplification system (antigen-capture/polymerase chain reaction, or AC/PCR) for detection of viruses in clinical specimens and its application to the study of the molecular epidemiology of a picornavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV). Immunoaffinity capture of virus, synthesis of viral cDNA, and amplification of cDNA by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were carried out sequentially in a single reaction vessel. This approach simplified sample preparation and enhanced the specificity of conventional PCR. AC/PCR detected less than one cell culture infectious unit of virus in 80 microliters of sample. Sequencing of AC/PCR reaction products from 34 virus strains demonstrated remarkable conservation at the nucleotide level among most strains but revealed hitherto unsuspected genetic diversity among human isolates. Epidemiologically related strains were identical or closely related in sequence. Virus strains recovered from epidemics of hepatitis A in the United States and Germany were identical in sequence, providing evidence for a previously unrecognized epidemiologic link between these outbreaks. ProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?1Dismukes, W. E. A. L. Bisno S. Katz R. F. Johnson1969HAn outbreak of gastroenteritis and infectious hepatitis due to raw clams555-561 American Journal of Epidemiology895 not availableProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 196932-33'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform7?%Jaykus, L. A. R. de Leon M. D. Sobsey1993EApplication of RT-PCR for the detection of enteric viruses in oysters49-53Water Science and Technology273-46Entericviruses; HAV; oysters; polymeric chain reaction Oyster samples processed by adsorption-elution-precipitation were seeded with poliovirus 1 and HAV, and cleaned and concentrated by Freon extraction (2X), PEG precipitation and chloroform extraction. Freon extraction resulted in recoveries of 63-76% for polio and 42-52% for HAV. PEG precipitation/chloroform extraction gave recoveries of 47-50% for polio and 15-19% for HAV. Treated extracts inhibited RT-PCR at 10-2 dilutions. Inhibitors were removed by treatment with the cationic detergent CTAB or Pro-Cipitate/UF adsorption-elution-concentration. Both treatments resulted in samples on which direct RT-PCR was possible. The CTAB procedure was able to detect 78 pfu of polio and 295 pfu of HAV. The Pro-Cipitate procedure was able to detect 70 pfu polio and 2.1 H 103 pfu HAV.ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969-Reports of four outbreaks. D. Ontario, Canada18-19@Hepatitis Surveillance (Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA)28ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972NReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A C. Hatfield, Arkansas8-9Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workformF?&Soares, A. C. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1992/Recover of poliovirus from sludge-amended soils999-1005+Journal of Environmental Science and Health274YSludges, soil-amendments, soil-pollution, microbial-contamination, polioviruses, recoveryProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform ?&Straub, T. M. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1992XPersistance of viruses in desert soils amended with anaerobically digested sewage sludge636-641&Applied and Environmental Microbiology582ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?6Jehl-Pietri, C. B. Hugues M. Andre J. M. Diez A. Bosch1993zComparison of immunological and molecular hybridization detection methods for the detection of hepatitis A virus in sewage162-166Letters in Applied Microbiology174jImmune electron microscopy (IEM), radioimmunoassay (RIA) and molecular hybridization with a digoxigenin-labelled cDNA probe were compared for the detection of wild-type human hepatitis A virus (HAV) in raw and treated sewage. In the same experiments, classic tests for culturable enteroviruses were carried out. With the hybridization probes, HAV was detected in three of the 13 affluent samples (23%) and in eight out of 13 effluent samples (61%). For four of the effluent samples, positivity revealed by IEM was confirmed by the cDNA probe. In contrast, two of the samples shown as positive by IEM were negative with the probes. Detection of HAV by RIA was negative in all cases. Demonstration of HAV was higher in effluent than in affluent. No particular relationship was established between demonstration of HAV, on the one hand, and the various concentrations of enteroviruses observed in the same samples on the other. Overall, if all the results, irrespective of the type of water (affluent or effluent), are taken together, 50% of the sewage samples tested were found to contain HAV by one or another method of detection. ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972LReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A E. Wickes, Arkansas10-11Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?#Kostenbader Jr., K. D. D. O. Cliver19796Purchased cell culture for detecting foodborne viruses888-889Journal of Food Protection42 not availableProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform@?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention19913Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 19901-61%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report3953TThis publication contains summary tables of the official statistics for calendar year 1990 on the occurrence of notifiable diseases in the United States. This information is solicited and compiled through entries to the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). In this year's publication, an additional section of information has been added. This section is a bibliography that identifies references for most notifiable diseases. Subject matter experts for each disease were consulted, and these experts identified up to three references they believed to be most useful or informative. Part I contains information on morbidity for each of the 49 currently notifiable conditions. The tables show the number of cases of notifiable diseases reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) for 1990, as well as the distribution of cases by month, geographic location, patient's age, and race/ethnicity. Part II contains graphs and maps depicting summary data for many of the notifiable conditions described in tabular form in Part I. Part III includes tables showing the number of notifiable diseases reported to CDC and to the National Office of Vital Statistics for the past 50 years. It also has a table of deaths associated with specified notifiable diseases reported to the National Center for Health Statistics, CDC, for the period 1979-1988. ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?%Jia, X. Y. E. Ehrenfeld D. F. Summers19914Proteolytic activity of hepatitis A virus 3C protein 2595-2600Journal of Virology655Although the genome organization and overall structure of hepatitis A virus are similar to those of other picornaviruses, nothing is known about the protein-processing pathways used by this virus to generate its capsid and nonstructural proteins from the polyprotein precursor. RNA transcripts of cloned hepatitis A virus cDNAs representing parts of the P2 and P3 regions of the genome were translated in rabbit reticulocyte lysates in vitro, and the translation products were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis before and after immunoprecipitation with specific antisera. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated rapid cleavage at the P2-P3 junction, followed by further but incomplete processing at the 3C-3D junction. Mutation of the 3C coding sequence eliminated all cleavages. Efforts to demonstrate intermolecular cutting of the P2-P3 cleavage site by active 3C or 3CD sequences were unsuccessful; thus, it is likely that this cleavage occurs by intramolecular reaction, in cis. ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969<Report of three outbreaks. A. los Angeles County, California6-7@Hepatitis Surveillance (Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA)30ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1970(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 197030'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?Robertson, B. H. R.W. Jansen B. Khanna A. Totsuka O. V. Nainan G. Siegl A. Widell H. S. Margolis S. Isomura K. Ito T. Ishizu Y. Moritsugu S. M. Lemon1992\Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographic regions 1365-1377J. Gen. Virol.736zA pairwise comparison of the nucleic acid sequence of 168 bases from 152 wild-type or unique cell culture-adapted strains of hepatitis A virus (HAV) revealed that HAV strains can be differentiated genetically into seven unique genotypes (I to VII). In general, the nucleotide sequence of viruses in different genotypes differs at 15 to 25% of positions within this segment of the genome. Viruses from four of the genotypes (I, II, III and VII) were recovered from cases of hepatitis A in humans, whereas viruses from the other three genotypes (IV, V and VI) were isolated only from simian species developing a hepatitis A-like illness during captivity. Among non-epidemiologically related human HAV strains, 81 were characterized as genotype I, and 19 as genotype III. Within each of these major genotypes, there were two distinct groups (subgenotypes), which differed in sequence at approximately 7.5% of base positions. Each genotype and subgenotype has a characteristic amino acid sequence in this region of the polyprotein, with the most divergent genotypes differing at 10 of 56 residues. Strains recovered from some geographical regions belonged to a common (endemic) genotype, whereas strains from other regions belonged to several, probably imported, genotypes. Thus, HAV strains recovered in North America were for the most part closely related at the nucleotide sequence level, whereas in other regions, such as Japan and Western Europe, HAV strains were derived from multiple genotypes or sub-genotypes. These data indicate that patterns of endemic transmission can be differentiated from situations in which infections are imported due to travel.ProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workforma?1Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf J. L. Melnick1986\Detection of hepatitis A virus in seeded estuarine samples by hybridization with cDNA probes711-717&Applied and Environmental Microbiology524BThe development and trials of a nucleic acid hybridization test for the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in estuarine samples within 48 h are described. Approximately 10(4) physical particles of HAV per dot could be detected. Test sensitivity was optimized by the consideration of hybridization stringency, 32P energy level, probe concentration, and nucleic acid binding to filters. Test specificity was shown by a lack of cross-hybridization with other enteroviruses and unrelated nucleic acids. Potential false-positive reactions between bacterial DNA in samples and residual vector DNA contamination of purified nucleotide sequences in probes were eliminated by DNase treatment of samples. Humic acid at concentrations of up to 100 mg/liter caused only insignificant decreases in test sensitivity. Interference with hybridization by organic components of virus-containing eluates was removed by proteinase K digestion followed by phenol extraction and ethanol precipitation. The test is suitable for detecting naturally occurring HAV in samples from polluted estuarine environments. ProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 1972 22 &38-40'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?Kott, H. L. Fishelson1974[Survival of enteroviruses on vegetables irrigated with chlorinated oxidation pond effluents290-297Israel Journal of Technology12 not availableProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?Winokur, P. L. J. T. Stapleton1992*Immunoglobulin prophylaxis for hepatitis A580-586Clinical Infectious Diseases142Studies conducted over the past 45 years have shown that immunoglobulin (IG) prevents 80%-90% of cases of hepatitis A when administered before exposure or shortly thereafter. Protection is short lived and requires early diagnosis and timely administration of IG to contacts. Inactivated and attenuated hepatitis A virus (HAV) vaccines have recently been developed and should be available for clinical use within the next few years. Evaluation of antibodies to HAV in IG and in IG recipients provides one method of determining the immunogenicity of HAV vaccines. The role of IG in the prevention of hepatitis A is reviewed with emphasis on the relationship of antibody response following IG administration to the efficacy of HAV vaccines. ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?#Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf1989LIn situ hybridization for quantitative assay of infectious hepatitis A virus874-879 Journal of Clinical Microbiology275A method of in situ hybridization using single-stranded RNA probes of opposite polarity for quantitative enumeration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in infected cells has been developed. Kinetic experiments showed that foci of infected cells appeared as early as day 2 postinfection. The absence of foci in cells examined immediately after virus adsorption indicated that foci detected subsequently were related to viral replication. Foci were detected by hybridization with RNA probes complementary to HAV genomic RNA but not with RNA probes identical to HAV genomic RNA. The number of foci observed was linearly related to the HAV dose inoculated. Focus formation was reduced when a virus inoculum was pretreated with guinea pig anti-HAV hyperimmune serum but not when it was pretreated with preimmune serum. The high resolution of hybridization signals and relative rapidity of the test indicated that this technique will be useful for measuring serum neutralizing antibodies and for quantitative assay of infectious HAV. ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969)Hepatitis outbreak - Garfield, New Jersey70$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report189ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972RReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A G. Locust Grove, Oklahoma13-15Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform|7k'Sobsey, M. D. Wallis, C. Melnick, J. L.1975KDevelopment of a simple method for concentrating enteroviruses from oysters21-6Appl Microbiol291qAdsorption Animals Cell Line Culture Techniques Enterovirus/*isolation & purification Enterovirus B, Human/isolation & purification Filtration Food Contamination *Food Microbiology Glycine Haplorhini Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Ion Exchange Resins Kidney Ostreidae/*microbiology Papio Poliovirus/isolation & purification Sodium Chloride Ultrafiltration Virus CultivationJanThe development of a simple method for concentrating enteroviruses from oysters is described. In this method viruses in homogenized oyster tissues are efficiently absorbed to oyster solids at pH 5.5 and low salt concentration. After low-speed centrifugation, the supernatant is discarded and viruses are eluted from the sedimented oyster solids by resuspending them in pH 3.5 glycine-buffered saline. The solids are then removed by low-speed centrifugation, and the virus-containing supernatant is filtered through a 0.2-micronm porosity filter to remove bacteria and other small particulates without removing viruses. The virus-containing filtrate is then concentrated to a volume of a few milliliters by ultrafiltration, and the concentrate obtained is inoculated directly into cell cultures for virus assay. When tested with pools of oysters experimentally contaminated with small amounts of different enteroviruses, virus recovery efficiency averaged 63%.chttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=234154Sobsey, M D Wallis, C Melnick, J L Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. United states Applied microbiology Appl Microbiol. 1975 Jan;29(1):21-6.0003-6919 (Print)234154eng?PFujiyama, S. S. Iino K. Odoh S. Kuzuhara H. Watanabe M. Tanaka K. Mizuno T. Sato1992UTime course of hepatitis A virus antibody titer after active and passive immunization983-988 Hepatology156To investigate the antibody titer necessary to prevent hepatitis A virus infection, either 15 or 7.5 mg/kg of immune serum globulin was injected into 10 antihepatitis A virus negative volunteers and their serum antihepatitis A virus titers were observed for 28 wk. In addition, antibody titers were observed for 96 wk in a phase 1 clinical trial of a hepatitis A vaccine. The two studies were then compared to assess the immunogenicity of the vaccine and the persistence of the antibody. Serum-neutralizing antibody titers that were greater than or equal to 4 (considered as positive) persisted for 18 wk and 14 wk after the injection of 15 and 7.5 mg/kg of globulin, respectively. Hepatitis A virus vaccine recipients showed adequate neutralizing antibody titers, with the groups receiving 1, 0.5 and 0.25 micrograms/dose showing titers of 4(5.5), 4(4.7) and 4(4), respectively, at 18 mo after the third inoculation. These findings suggested that effective blood antibody titers were likely to be retained in the 1.0 micrograms or 0.5 micrograms/dose groups for at least several years. Moreover, the serum antihepatitis A virus titers demonstrated by a modified radioimmunoassay changed in parallel with the neutralizing antibody titers in the volunteers injected with globulin. ProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform?#Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf1987ODetection of hepatitis A virus by hybridization with single-stranded RNA probes 2487-2495&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5310An improved method of dot-blot hybridization to detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) was developed with single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) probes. Radioactive and nonradioactive ssRNA probes were generated by in vitro transcription of HAV templates inserted into the plasmid pGEM-1. 32P-labeled ssRNA probes were at least eightfold more sensitive than the 32P-labeled double-stranded cDNA counterparts, whereas biotin-labeled ssRNA probes showed a sensitivity comparable with that of the 32P-labeled double-stranded cDNA counterparts. Hybridization of HAV with the ssRNA probes at high stringency revealed specific reactions with a high signal-to-noise ratio. The differential hybridization reactions seen with probes of positive and negative sense (compared with HAV genomic RNA) were used to detect HAV in clinical and field samples. A positive/negative ratio was introduced as an indicator that permitted a semiquantitative expression of a positive HAV reaction. Good agreement of this indicator was observed with normal stool samples and with HAV-seeded samples. By using this system, HAV was detected in estuarine and freshwater samples collected from a sewage-polluted bayou in Houston and a saltwater tributary of Galveston Bay. ProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform? Lipari, M.1951"A milk-borne poliomyelitis episode362-369NY State J. Med.51 not availableProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform?Berger, R. M. Just1992LVaccination against hepatitis A: control 3 years after the first vaccination295Vaccine104 not availableProCite Record Number: 370Journal Short Form workform?RJothikumar, N. K. Aparna S. Kamatchiammal R. Paulmurugan S. Saravanadevi P. khanna1993_Detection of hepatitis E virus in raw and treated wastewater with the polymerase chain reaction 2558-2562&Applied and Environmental Microbiology598The main objective of this study was to determine the applicability of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detection of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in sewage treatment plants and establishment of the prevalence of hepatitis viral diseases in a population. Epidemics of HEV infection because of inadequate public sanitation have been reported in several developing countries. A procedure for concentration of HEV in sewage samples through adsorption to membrane filters, elution with urea-arginine phosphate buffer, and subsequent reconcentration with magnesium chloride enabled us to concentrate HEV to volumes in the microliter range. HEV-specific cDNA was prepared by reverse transcription of the total RNA extracted from samples. Specific DNA amplification by PCR in combination with slot blot hybridization was used to demonstrate the presence of HEV in sewage samples from the inlets and outlets of three sewage treatment plants. The assay was specific for HEV, and a 240-bp amplified product was visualized by ethidium bromide fluorescence. Sewage samples adjusted to pH 5.0 for adsorption of viruses to membrane filters were PCR positive, while samples adjusted to pH 3.5 were PCR negative. ProCite Record Number: 370Journal Short Form workform(?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy19679Viral pollution and selfcleansing mechanism of hard clams419-438*Transmission of viruses by the water route Berg, G. Ed.New York"Interscience (John Wiley and Sons)ProCite Record Number: 370Book Chapter workform?%Keller, G. H. D. P. Huang M. M. Manak1991Detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA by polymerase chain reaction amplification and capture hybridization in microtiter wells638-641 Journal of Clinical Microbiology293We developed an improved microtiter-based assay for the detection of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified DNA sequences. The synthetic DNA sequences used to prime the PCR were labeled with biotin at their 5' ends so that the specific PCR product was labeled with biotin. Following amplification, an aliquot of the PCR product was denatured and hybridized to a capture DNA sequence immobilized in a microtiter well. The capture sequence was complementary to a portion of the sequence between the primers, so that only extended primers were captured. The captured PCR product was detected colorimetrically by using a streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate and tetramethylbenzidine substrate. ProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1971 Infectious hepatitis - Tennessee357$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2039ProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy1966;Viral pollution of shellfish. I. Some basic facts of uptake481-487@Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine123 not availableProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform? Lemon, S. M.1992rHepatitis A virus: current concepts of the molecular virology, immunobiology and approaches to vaccine development73-87Review in Medical Virology22ProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?,Langer, B. C. A. A. Lövestad G. G. Frösner1996PHigh immunogenicity and good tolerability of a new hepatitis A vaccine candidate 1089-1091Vaccine14128Hepatitis A virus; vaccine; immunogenicity; tolerabilityImmunogenicity and tolerability of a new formalin-inactivated, alum-adjuvanted whole virus vaccine against hepatitis A (VAQTA, MSD, West Point, USA) were evaluated by immunizing 52 healthy, anti-HAV negative volunteers with a 1 ml dose. A booster dose was given 6 months later. In these young adult vaccinees [27 males and 25 females, 19-34 (mean 26) years of age] VAQTA proved to be well tolerated and highly immunogenic. Two weeks after administration of one vaccine dose, all but one of the recipients (98%) had anti-HAV concentrations above the presumed minimum protective level of 10 IU l-1 with a geometric mean concentration (GMC) of 165 IU l-1. After 4 weeks, a 100% seroconversion rate could be demonstrated with a fourfold increase of the GMC to 728 IU l-1. Six months after vaccination, all but one of the 50 volunteers coming back for booster (98%) showed anti-HAV levels within the protective range. The antibody concentrations had decreased in the majority of vaccinees to a GMC of 362 IU l-1. The booster dose given at that time was shown to be very effective, leading to a pronounced rise of anti-HAV levels in all recipients with a 17-fold increase of the GMC to 6040 IU l-1. Six months after the booster, all vaccinees were still seropositive with a GMC of 3444 IU l-1. Higher antibody levels were found in females, the difference being significant 4 weeks and 6 months after vaccination and 4 weeks after booster. No serious local or systemic adverse reactions were observed. ProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 197125-26'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy1967(Viral depuration of the northern quahaug307-315Applied Microbiology15 not availableProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workformC?<Emerson, S. U. Y. K. Huang, C. McRill M. lewis R. H. Purcell1992pMutations in both the 2B and 2C genes of hepatitis A virus are involved in adaptations to growth in cell culture650-654Journal of Virology662Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis of an infectious cDNA clone of wild-type hepatitis A virus was performed to determine which mutations acquired in the nonstructural 2B and 2C genes during adaptation to growth in cell culture were effective in enhancing virus growth in vitro. Results of transfection assays demonstrated that one mutation in the 2B gene and two mutations in the 2C gene were responsible for an increased efficiency in growth, but growth enhancement required the participation of at least two of the three mutations. ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?(Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn R. H. Marchwicki1983MRadioimmunofocus assay for quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures834-839 Journal of Clinical Microbiology175A new method is described for the quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures, based on the immune autoradiographic detection of foci of infected cells (radioimmunofoci) developing beneath an agarose overlay 14 days after the inoculation of petri dish cultures of continuous African green monkey kidney cells (BS-C-1). The number of foci developing in each culture was linearly related to the dose of hepatitis A virus (either HM-175 or PA-21 strain) inoculated. Focus development was prevented by prior incubation of virus with specific antisera, and the specificity of the radiolabeled antibody reaction was confirmed in competitive blocking experiments. This new assay method retains many of the advantages of conventional plaque assays for virus. Compared with existing end-dilution methods for the quantitation of hepatitis A virus, the radioimmunofocus assay offers greatly improved accuracy and comparable sensitivity, yet is relatively rapid and highly conservative of reagents. ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Feingold, A. O.1973#Hepatitis from eating steamed clams526-527+Journal of the American Medical Association225ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Mathews, F. P.1949QPoliomeylitis epidemic, possibly milk-borne, in a naval station, Portland, Oregon1-7 Am. J. Hyg.491 not availableProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn19839Serum neutralizing antibody response to hepatitis A virus 1033-1039Journal of Infectious Diseases1486Serum neutralizing antibody to hepatitis A virus (HAV) was measured in experimentally infected primates and naturally infected humans by means of an assay based on the autoradiographic detection of viral replication foci in vitro. Infection of primates with either PA-33 or HM-175 strains of HAV elicited antibody capable of neutralizing either strain. Sequential testing of two monkeys showed that neutralizing antibody correlated closely with antibody detected by immunoassay, developed before liver enzyme elevations, and was associated with a substantial reduction in fecal shedding of viral antigen. In tests performed on human subjects involved in an outbreak of hepatitis A, neutralizing antibody was present three to five days before the onset of symptoms and was found in both 19S and 7S immunoglobulin fractions. Immunity to HAV is probably due primarily to neutralizing antibody, and the ability to quantitate this antibody will be helpful in the evaluation of new HAV vaccines. ProCite Record Number: 410Journal Short Form workform?Metcalf, T. G. W. C. Stiles1965HThe accumulation of enteric viruses by the oyster, Crassostrea virginica68-76Journal of Infectious Diseases115 not availableProCite Record Number: 410Journal Short Form workform?hHyams, K. C. M. C. McCarthy M. Kaur M. A. Purdy D. W. Bradley M. M. Mansour S. Gray D. M. Watts M. Carl 1992=Acute sporadic hepatitis E in children living in Cairo, Egypt274-277Journal of Medical Virology 374Seventy-three pediatric patients with acute hepatitis and 19 control patients without liver disease living in Cairo, Egypt, were evaluated with a newly developed Western blot assay for IgM antibody to hepatitis E virus (IgM anti-HEV). The mean age of acute hepatitis patients was 6.4 years (range, 1-13 years); 56% were male. Among the 73 acute cases, hepatitis A was diagnosed in 30 (41%), possible acute hepatitis B in three (4%), hepatitis E in nine (12%), and by exclusion, non-A, non-B hepatitis in 29 (40%). Two additional acute cases were positive for both IgM anti-HAV and IgM anti-HEV. None of the 19 control subjects had IgM anti-HEV. Parenteral risk factors were associated with cases of non-A, non-B hepatitis but were not associated with acute hepatitis E. Contact with a family member with jaundice was associated with acute hepatitis A. In contrast to prior epidemics of enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis, HEV was found to be a common cause of acute hepatitis in a pediatric population. This study provides additional evidence that HEV may be a frequent cause of acute sporadic hepatitis among children living in some developing countries. ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?'Lemon, S. M. R. W. Jansen J. E. Newbold1985Infectious hepatitis A virus particles produced in cell culture consist of three distinct types with different buoyant densities in CsCl78-85Journal of Virology541Although hepatitis A virus (HAV) released by infected BS-C-1 cells banded predominantly at 1.325 g/cm3 (major component) in CsCl, smaller proportions of infectious virions banded at 1.42 g/cm3 (dense HAV particles) and at 1.27 g/cm3 (previously unrecognized light HAV particles). cDNA-RNA hybridization confirmed the banding of viral RNA at each density, and immune electron microscopy demonstrated apparently complete viral particles in each peak fraction. The ratio of the infectivity (radioimmunofocus assay) titer to the antigen (radioimmunoassay) titer of the major component was approximately 15-fold greater than that of dense HAV particles and 4-fold that of light HAV particles. After extraction with chloroform, the buoyant density of light and major component HAV particles remained unchanged, indicating that the lower density of the light particles was not due to association with lipids. Light particles also banded at a lower density (1.21 g/cm3) in metrizamide than did the major component (1.31 g/cm3). Dense HAV particles, detected by subsequent centrifugation in CsCl, were indistinguishable from the major component when first banded in metrizamide (1.31 g/cm3). However, dense HAV particles recovered from CsCl subsequently banded at 1.37 g/cm3 in metrizamide. Electrophoresis of virion RNA under denaturing conditions demonstrated that dense, major-component, and light HAV particles all contained RNA of similar length. Thus, infectious HAV particles released by BS-C-1 cells in vitro consist of three distinct types which band at substantially different densities in CsC1, suggesting different capsid structures with varied permeability to cesium or different degrees of hydration. ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform??Dienstag, J. L. I. D. Gust C. R. Lucas D. C. Wong R. H. Purcell1976BMussel-associated viral hepatitis type A: serological confirmation561-564 The Lancet1ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?%Metcalf, T. G. D. Eckerson E. Moulton1980KA method for recovery of viruses from oysters and hard and soft shell clams89-90Journal of Food Protection43 not availableProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?$Zaaiger, H. L. M. F. Yin P. N. Lelie19920Seroprevalence of hepatitis E in the Netherlands681Lancet3408822(Hepatitis E, Netherlands, seroprevalenceProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?,Lednicky, J. A. S. Jafar C. Wong J. S. Butel1997High-fidelity PCR amplification of infectious copies of the complete simian virus 40 genome from plasmids and virus-infected cell lysates189-195Gene1842wLong-PCR; molecular clone; SV40 large tumor antigen; viral enhancer; viral plaque; viral regulatory region; viral titersWe describe here a long-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method that can be used to amplify complete simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA with high fidelity, and we show that authentic, viable virus can be produced from molecular clones of the PCR-amplified viral DNAs. A commercial long-PCR kit that employed a combination of Taq and GB-D polymerases was used, together with a pair of overlapping primers that recognized a unique EcoRI site in the SV40 genome. Efficient amplification required linearization of the circular SV40 genomic DNAs with EcoRI. Entire SV40 genomes were successfully PCR-amplified from an SV40 plasmid and from two different SV40-infected cell lysates and were cloned into pUC-19. Three separate segments of the cloned viral genomes were DNA sequenced, and no nucleotide changes relative to the parental virus were detected, suggesting that the viral DNAs had been amplified with high fidelity. Each PCR clone was infectious, and no differences were detected in the growth characteristics of viruses derived from these clones as compared to the original viral strain. The procedure we utilized shortens and simplifies the molecular cloning of small double-stranded DNA viruses and will be useful for viral diagnostic tests and for recovery of virus from clinical samples. The results of these experiments have broad implications, as the methodology is applicable to many systems. ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?Gaub, J. L. Ranek19739Epidemic of hepatitis after ingestion of imported oysters345Ugescrift for laeger135ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?CMinor, T. E. C. I. Allen A. A. Tsiatis D. B. Nelson D. J. D'Alessio1981PHuman infective dose determinations for oral polovirus type 1 vaccine in infants388-389 Journal of Clinical Microbiology132The 50, 10, and 1% human infective doses of poliovirus type 1 vaccine administered orally to 32 infants were estimated to be 72, 39, and 20 tissue culture infective doses, respectively. ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workforme?BAye, T. T. T. Uchida, X. Ma F. Lida T. Shikata H. Zhuang K. M. Win1992^Sequence comparison of th capsid region of hepatitis E viruses isolated from Myanmar and China615-621Microbiology and Immunology366>Hepatitis E viruses (HEVs) were isolated during epidemics, one from Myanmar (formerly called Burma) and one from China and were partially sequenced. Another HEV Myanmar strain from sporadic hepatitis was previously sequenced by us. A cDNA sequence comparison was performed among them in the 3'-terminal region, approximately 750-base long. This region contained at least two immunological epitopes and was considered to correspond to the structural protein. The nucleotide sequence identity was 97.2% between the two Myanmar strains and 93.3 and 92.5% between the two Myanmar and the China strain. The deduced amino acid sequence identity ranged from 98.4 to 100.0% among the three strains. Thus this segment was well conserved on the amino acid level among the different strains isolated from these two Asian countries, although the China strain diverged more from the Myanmar strains on the nucleotide sequence level. This data may provide important information for the development of a vaccine and for identification of the virological link between different geographical locations. ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?CLocarnini, S. A. A. G. Coulepis A. M. Stratton J. Kaldor I. D. Gust1979dSolid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M459-465 Journal of Clinical Microbiology94}A solid-phase enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was developed for the detection of immunoglobulin M antibody to hepatitis A virus. The system was capable of detecting hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M in a single dilution of serum and appears to be a reliable and rapid means of establishing a diagnosis of hepatitis A infection. Specific immunoglobulin M was only detected in patients with serologically confirmed hepatitis A and not in patients with other forms of hepatitis, chronic liver disease, or autoimmune disease. In patients with hepatitis A, specific immunoglobulin M was usually detectable for 6 weeks after the onset of dark urine, and the longest period for which it was present in any patient was 115 days. This enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is rapid, simple to perform, and does not require complicated equipment. Provided adequate supplies of purified reagents can be obtained, this enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay procedure is likely to simplify hepatitis A serology, because the same antibody-coated plates can be utilized to detect hepatitis A virus, anti-hepatitis A virus, and hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M. ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?Guidon, L. C. A. Pierach19731Infectious hepatitis after ingestion of raw clams15-19Minnesota Medicine56ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform? Northolt, M. D. J. G. Kapsenberg1976/Onderzoek naar enterovirussen in vlees en ghakt57-76NRapport nr. Zoon Rijks Instuut voor de Volksqezondheld, Bilthoven, NetherlandsProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?fTsarev, S. A. S. U. Emerson G. R. Reyes T. S. Tsareva L. J. Legters I. A. Malik M. Iqbal R. H. Purcell1992;Characterization of a prototype strain of hepatitis E virus559-563Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA892_A strain of hepatitis E virus (SAR-55) implicated in an epidemic of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis, now called hepatitis E, was characterized extensively. Six cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were infected with a strain of hepatitis E virus from Pakistan. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to determine the pattern of virus shedding in feces, bile, and serum relative to hepatitis and induction of specific antibodies. Virtually the entire genome of SAR-55 (7195 nucleotides) was sequenced. Comparison of the sequence of SAR-55 with that of a Burmese strain revealed a high level of homology except for one region encoding 100 amino acids of a putative nonstructural polyprotein. Identification of this region as hypervariable was obtained by partial sequencing of a third isolate of hepatitis E virus from Kirgizia.ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?$Lodmell, D. L. N. B. Ray L. C. Ewalt1998rGene gun particle-mediated vaccination with plasmid DNA confers protective immunity against rabies virus infection115-118Vaccine162-3DNA rabies vaccine; gene gunAccell gene gun particle-mediated immunization with DNA encoding the glycoprotein gene of the challenge virus standard strain of rabies virus was evaluated for its ability to elicit protective levels of serum anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody. Strong primary and booster neutralizing antibody responses were detected in mice following immunization with 2 micrograms of DNA coated on 2.6-micron gold beads. Protective levels of antibody persisted for over 300 days. Mice challenged intraplantarly 315 days post-primary immunization (225 days post-booster vaccination) survived lethal rabies virus challenge. Our data demonstrate a potentially significant role for gene gun-based delivery of DNA in the field of rabies virus vaccination. ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973,Common source outbreak of hepatitis A - Ohio86$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2210ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?:Piszczek, E. A. H. J. Shaughnessy J. Zichis S. O. Levinson1941hAcute anterior poliomyelitis: study of an outbreak in West Suburban Cook County, III. Preliminary report 1962-1965JAMA117 not availableProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform 9RH and 5 degrees C to about 2 h at the ultrahigh RH and 35 degrees C. In parallel tests with fecally suspended Sabin poliovirus (PV) type 1 at the low and ultrahigh RH, all PV activity was lost within 4 h at the low RH whereas at the ultrahigh RH it remained detectable up to 12 h. HAV could therefore survive much better than PV on nonporous environmental surfaces. Moreover, the ability of HAV to survive better at low levels of RH is in direct contrast to the behavior of other enteroviruses. These findings should help in understanding the genesis of HAV outbreaks more clearly and in designing better measures for their control and prevention.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1649579Mbithi, J N Springthorpe, V S Sattar, S A Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1991 May;57(5):1394-9.0099-2240 (Print)1829601649579WDepartment of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.eng V5hreefold increase in the ?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19797Foodborne and waterborne outbreaks: annual summary 197728&76'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1976?Foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks: annual summary 197533&62'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform?Roos, B.1956#Hepatitepidemi, spridd genom ostron989-1003Svenska Lakartidningen53 not availableProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workformF?World Health Organization1992Fifth Report. 1985-1989.ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in EuropeProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform (42) Institute of Veterinary Medicine- Robert von Ostertag- Institute (FAO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training in Food Hygiene and Zoonoses), Berlin?!Ma, J. F. J. Naranjo C. P. Gerba 1994EEvaluation of MK filters for recovery of enteroviruses from tap water 1974-1977&Applied and Environmental Microbiology606The MK filter is an electropositively charged filter that can be used to concentrate enteroviruses from large volumes (400 to 1,000 liters) of water. This filter is less expensive than the commonly used 1MDS electropositive filter. In this study, we compared the recovery of poliovirus 1 (PV1) and that of coxsackievirus B3 (CB3) from 378 liters of tap water, using both the MK and the 1MDS filters. Viruses were eluted from the filters with 3% beef extract buffered with 0.05 M glycine (pH 9.5) and reconcentrated via organic flocculation. At high virus inputs (approximately 10(6) PFU), the overall recovery (after elution and reconcentration) of PV1 and CB3 from tap water with the MK filter was less than that achieved with the 1MDS filter (P < 0.05). The recoveries of PV1 from tap water with the MK and 1MDS filters were 73.2% +/- 26% (n = 5 trials) and 90.2% +/- 5.9% (n = 5 trials), respectively. The recoveries of CB3 from tap water with the MK and 1MDS filters were 32.8% +/- 34.5% (n = 4 trials) and 95.8% +/- 12.0% (n = 4 trials), respectively. This study indicated that the MK filter consistently provided lower recovery, with wider variability, of PV1 and CB3 from tap water than the 1MDS filter. ProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workform? ,Mackowiak, P. A. C. T. Caraway B. L. Portnoy1976BOyster-associated hepatitis: lessons from the Louisiana experience181-191 American Journal of Epidemiology103ProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workformC? 2Schmidt, N. J. H. H. Ho J. L. Riggs E. H. Lennette1978rComparative sensitivity of various cell culture systems for isolation of viruses from wastewater and fecal samples480-486&Applied and Environmental Microbiology363 not availableProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workformy? Ticehurst, J. L. L. Rhodes, Jr. K. Krawcznski L. V. Asher W. F. Engler T. L. Mensing J. D. Caudill M. H. Sjogren C. H. Jr. Hoke J. W. LeDuc, et al1992|Infection of owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) and cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) with hepatitis E virus from Mexico835-845Journal of Infectious Diseases1655Owl and cynomolgus monkeys were inoculated with hepatitis E virus (HEV) to compare disease models and produce antibody and virus. By immune electron microscopy (IEM), all six owl monkeys were shown to have serologic responses manifested by unusually high levels of anti-HEV at 6 months, but only three developed hepatitis. Virus-related antigen in liver (HEV Ag) was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy of biopsies from two of four owl monkeys; one with HEV Ag also had HEV in acute-phase bile (detected by IEM) and feces (detected by infecting another owl monkey). In contrast, cynomolgus monkeys propagated HEV to higher levels and all five had hepatitis. Moderate-to-high levels of HEV Ag correlated with detectable HEV in bile for both species. Thus, the value of using HEV-infected cynomolgus was confirmed. Owl monkeys were shown to be HEV-susceptible and sources of high-level anti-HEV; Sustained anti-HEV in these monkeys may also be useful for understanding immune responses. ProCite Record Number: 480Journal Short Form workformI? LMakimura, M. S. Miyake N. Akino K. Takamori Y. Matsuura T. Miyamura I. Saito1996mInduction of antibodies against structural proteins of hepatitis C virus in mice using recombinant adenovirus28-34Vaccine141>Recombinant adenovirus; hepatitis C virus; structural proteinsReplication-deficient recombinant adenoviruses expressing structural proteins of hepatitis C virus (HCV) were constructed. Each recombinant lacks adenoviral E1A and E3 genes and bears expression units for HCV structural proteins. The expression units contain HCV cDNAs coding for either the protein or core, one of two envelopes (E1 and E2) or all of these structural proteins (core, E1 and E2) under the control of the SR alpha promoter. In HeLa or HepG2 cells, the recombinants can express efficiently HCV genes after infection without replication of the recombinants. We detected 22-kDa core, 35-kDa E1 and 58-kDa E2 proteins of HCV in these cells. The recombinant expressing all three HCV structural proteins was inoculated into mice. Antibodies to each of the three HCV proteins were detected in all of the ten mice tested. The results indicate that the recombinant adenoviruses efficiently express HCV genes and induce specific antibody against the expressed HCV proteins in animals. ProCite Record Number: 480Journal Short Form workform%SU7t7Sobsey, M. D. Jones, B. L.1979WConcentration of poliovirus from tap water using positively charged microporous filters588-95Appl Environ Microbiol373~Adsorption Hydrogen-Ion Concentration *Micropore Filters Poliovirus/*isolation & purification *Water Microbiology Water SupplyMarMicroporous filters that are more electropositive than the negatively charged filters currently used for virus concentrations from water by filter adsorption-elution methods were evaluated for poliovirus recovery from tap water. Zeta Plus filters composed of diatomaceous earth-cellulose-"charge-modified" resin mixtures and having a net positive charge of up to pH 5 to 6 efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water at ambient pH levels 7.0 to 7.5 without added multivalent cation salts. The adsorbed virus were eluted with glycine-NaOH, pH 9.5 to 11.5. Electropositive asbestos-cellulose filters efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water without added multivalent cation salts between pH 3.5 and 9.0, and the absorbed viruses could be eluted with 3% beef extract, pH 9, but not with pH 9.5 to 11.5 glycine-NaOH. Under water quality conditions in which poliovirus recoveries from large volumes of water were less than 5% with conventional negatively charged filters and standard methods, recoveries with Zeta Plus filters averaged 64 an?;Huang, R. T. D. R. Li J. Wei X. R. Huang X. T. Yuan X. Tian1992DIsolation and identification of hepatitis E virus in Xinjiang, China 1143-1148Journal of General Virology735This paper describes isolation and identification of a virus (termed strain 87A) which has the cytopathic effect and haemagglutination properties of hepatitis E virus (HEV). This virus was isolated by tissue culture from the faeces of a patient with acute non-A, non-B enteric hepatitis in Xinjiang, China. The isolated virus was neutralized by acute phase sera obtained from other patients with acute non-A, non-B enteric hepatitis. The virus particles also could be specifically aggregated with acute phase sera from patients with known HEV hepatitis in China, Burma, India and the U.S.S.R., and with acute and convalescent sera from an HEV-infected chimpanzee. Crystalline arrangements of virus particles in the cytoplasm were observed by electron microscopy in ultrathin sections of infected cells. The sedimentation coefficient of the strain 87A virus particles in sucrose gradients was 176S. Purified virus particles revealed a protein band of about 76K on SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. The evidence indicates that the strain 87A virus is an HEV. Our ability to propagate HEV in cell culture should facilitate research on this hepatotropic virus. ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform? Mandel, B.1962[The use of sodium dodecyl sulfate in studies on the interodisa of poliovirus and HeLa cells288-294Virology17 Poliovirus (type 1) is inactivated by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) only at pH below 4.7. When virus adsorbs to cells at 2º, only about 2% of the cell-associated virus can be recovered by freezing and thawing the infected cells. However, at least 50% is recovered by lysing the cells with SDS. If the debris derived from the freeze-thaw-disrupted cells is treated with SDS, the titer of infectious virus increases to the same level obtained by direct SDS treatment. At 37º the amount of cell-associated virus that can be recovered with SDS decreases to about 30% of the total in 2-3 hours. Variations in multiplicity of infection affect neither the amount of virus that becomes irrecoverable (possible because of true eclipsing) nor the earlies time at which newly synthesized virus can be detected.ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1982?Enteric illness associated with raw clam consumption - New York449-451$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report3133ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform ? Sobsey, M.D.1981TEvaluating adsorbent filter performance for enteric virus concetrations in tap water542-548J. Am. Water Works Assoc.73 vate all of the virus present. These results suggest that not only fresh but also refrigerated and cooked oysters can serve as vectors for the dissemination of virus disease if the shellfish are harvested from a polluted area.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=4318574mDiGirolamo, R Liston, J Matches, J R United states Applied microbiology Appl Microbiol. 1970 Jul;20(1):58-63.0003-6919 (Print)3768664318574eng U&4ABO Blood-Group System/*physiology Animals Blood Group Antigens Food Contamination/*analysis Gastroenteritis/epidemiology/etiology/virology Gastrointestinal Tract/*virology Glycogen/metabolism Humans Norovirus/metabolism/*physiology Ostreidae/*virology Receptors, Virus/physiology Seasons Shellfish/*virologyAugNoroviruses (NORs) are the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks. Outbreaks are often associated with the consumption of contaminated oysters and generally occur between the months of November and March, when oysters produce the highest levels of glycogen. Oyster glycogen has been proposed as playing a role in NOR accumulation. Recent research indicates that histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) function as viral receptors on human gastrointestinal cells. In this study, oyster glycogen was tested to determine whether it contains HBGA-like molecules and whether it plays a role in NOR binding. The correlation between the amount of HBGA expression ? Bricout, F.1992Viral diarrhorea309-314Presse Medicalf217ReviewIt is now well known that several viruses are responsible for acute diarrhoea or gastroenteritis in both children and adults. These viruses are difficult to identify since most of them cannot be isolated by stool cultures on cells. The reality of proven reinfection by some of these organisms is not always clearly understood, even though the existence of several serotypes in the same group (notably rotavirus) can be blamed, and this explains why vaccines are difficult to develop. ProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1976@Foodborne and waterborne diseases outbreaks: annual summary 197438-39'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?-Sullivan, R. A. C. Fassolitis R. B. Read Jr. 1970-Method for isolating viruses from ground beef624-626Journal of Food Science35 not availableProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?Moore, N. J. A. B. Margolin1993vEvaluation of radioactive and nonradioactive gene probes and cell culture for detection of poliovirus in water samples 3145-3146&Applied and Environmental Microbiology599Five nonradioactive probe assays were evaluated by using chemiluminescent and colormetric signals, along with two isotopic assays and cell culture, for the detection of poliovirus in concentrated water samples. In environmental samples, a 100% correlation existed between digoxigenin and single-stranded [32P]RNA probes. All probe assays detected more positive samples than the cell culture did. ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19793Foodborne disease surveillance: annual summary 197826'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform ?,Taylor, J. W. G. W. Gary Jr. H. B. Greenberg1981HNorwalk-related viral gastroenteritis due to contaminated drinking water584-592 American Journal of Epidemiology1144 An explosive outbreak of gastrointestinal illness clinically compatible with infection by an agent serologically related to Norwalk virus agent occurred in an elementary school in May 1978. Seroconversion by radioimmunoassay to the Norwalk antigen was noted in two of three ill persons, but no viral particles were identified in stool. Illness developed in 72% of students and teachers at the school, and 32% of household contacts of these ill persons. Of household contacts of persons exposed at school but not clinically ill, 11% developed illness. This value, however, was not statistically different from the level of illness observed concurrently in household contacts of students at an unaffected school nearby. Epidemiologic investigation implicated water as the mode of transmission. Average consumption of one or more glasses per day was strongly associated with illness (p less than 0.00000001). Among soccer team members with limited school contact, water consumption at the school was associated with a 14-fold greater risk of illness (p less than 0.000001). Drinking water was most likely contaminated by back-siphonage through a cross-connection between the school's well and septic tank. This contamination occurred approximately 24 to 36 hours before the outbreak developed. ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?Pringle, C. R.19922Committee pursues medley of virus taxonomic issues475-476&American Society for Microbiology News58ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?Nadala, E. C. B. Jr. P. C. Loh1992gProduction of high efficiency of plating hepatitis A virus in primary African green monkey kidney cells400-403>Prococcedings of the Society Experimental Biology and Medicine1994High-titered hepatitis A virus, strain HM-175, was produced in primary African green monkey kidney cells (5.5 x 10(10) tissue culture ID50/850 cm2 roller bottle). The virus preparation had an efficiency of plating of 15 particles per infectious unit. Single-cycle growth kinetics of the adapted virus indicated that after an eclipse period of 2 days, maximal yields were attained 6 days after infection. ProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979BFoodborne and waterborne disease surveillance: annual summary 197728&76'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform0?MTierney, J. T. A. Fassolitis D. Van Donsel V. C. Rao R. Sullivan E. P. Larkin1980TGlass wool-hydroextraction method for recovery of human enteroviruses from shellfish102-104Journal of Food Protection43 not availableProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform?*Jiang, X. M. Wang D. Y. Graham M. K. Estes1992OExpression, self-assembly, and antigenicity of the Norwalk virus capsid protein 6527-6532Journal of Virology 6611Norwalk virus capsid protein was produced by expression of the second and third open reading frames of the Norwalk virus genome, using a cell-free translation system and baculovirus recombinants. Analysis of the expressed products showed that the second open reading frame encodes a protein with an apparent molecular weight of 58,000 (58K protein) and that this protein self-assembles to form empty viruslike particles similar to native capsids in size and appearance. The antigenicity of these particles was demonstrated by immunoprecipitation and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of paired serum samples from volunteers who developed illness following Norwalk virus challenge. These particles also induced high levels of Norwalk virus-specific serum antibody in laboratory animals following parenteral inoculation. A minor 34K protein was also found in infected insect cells. Amino acid sequence analysis of the N terminus of the 34K protein indicated that the 34K protein was a cleavage product of the 58K protein. The availability of large amounts of recombinant Norwalk virus particles will allow the development of rapid, sensitive, and reliable tests for the diagnosis of Norwalk virus infection as well as the implementation of structural studies. ProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?!)Poovorawan, Y. A. Theamboonlers A. Safary1996WSingle-dose hepatitis A vaccination: comparison of different dose levels in adolescents 1092-1094Vaccine1412*Hepatitis A; adolescents; two dose levelsThe effect of two dose levels of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine was investigated for immunogenicity and reactogenicity in an open study in adolescents. The subjects were randomized into two groups and to receive a priming dose of 720 EL. U or 1440 EL. U of hepatitis A antigen, respectively. A booster of the same dose level was given at month 6. In group 1, receiving 720 EL. U, the seroconversion rates at 15 days and 1 month were 92% and 99%. The corresponding rates for group 2, receiving 1440 EL. U, were 98% and 100%. Higher geometric mean titres of antibody to hepatitis A virus were noted at 1, 6 and 7 months in the group receiving 1440 EL. U. The vaccine was well tolerated in both groups. The most frequent side effect was transient soreness at the site of inoculation. No serious adverse reactions were observed. The study demonstrated that inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is safe and immunogenic at a dose level of 720 EL. U or 1440 EL. U in adolescents. ProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?"1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1981CFoodborne disease surveillance: annual summary 1978 (revised issue)27'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform#?#1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963?Foodborne epidemic in a school for American military dependents19-20@Hepatitis Survellience, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA15 not availableProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?$BCoulson, B. S. K. Grimwood, I. L. Hudson G. L. Barnes R. F. Bishop1992YRole of coprantibody in clinical protection of children during reinfection with rotavirus 1678-1684!Journal of Clinical Microbiology 307Rotavirus is the major cause of severe, dehydrating infantile gastroenteritis. Infection is limited to the gut, but the relative roles of serum and secretory copro-immunoglobulin A (IgA) in protection are unclear. Specific copro-IgA is predictive of duodenal antirotaviral IgA and correlates with virus-neutralizing coproantibody. Copro-IgA conversion is a more sensitive marker of rotavirus reinfection than seroconversion. We measured rotavirus reinfections by copro-IgA conversion prospectively in 35 children recruited at a time of severe rotavirus illness. The children were followed up longitudinally for 14 to 31 months to determine whether high coproantibody levels correlated with clinical protection against rotavirus disease. Ninety-four percent of the children experienced reinfection, and 38% developed persistent elevations in specific copro-IgA termed plateaus. Plateau children had a higher mean annual rate of rotavirus infection and a lower ratio of symptomatic to total number of rotavirus reinfections than did nonplateau children. The annual rates of rotavirus infection and disease were significantly higher outside the plateau than inside it in children experiencing antirotavirus copro-IgA plateaus. Frequent rotavirus infection of children appears to stimulate production of a specific copro-IgA plateau which correlates with protection against an excess of infection and symptomatic disease. ProCite Record Number: 540Journal Short Form workform?%"Prévot, J. S. Dubrou J. Maréchal1993rDetection of human hepatitis a virus in environmental water by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method227-233Water Science and Technology273-4sHepatitis A virus; immuno-affinity capture; hemi-nested enzymatic amplification; hybridization; environmental watereTo detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) in environmental water samples, sensitive and specific methods are needed. An hemi-nested enzymatic amplification procedure was developed. When it was associated with an immunocaputure (IC) step, specificity and sensitivity were increased. The presence of a specific DNA fragment of 318 bp was detected by the analysis of the electrophoresis of the PCR products and confirmed on the autoradiogram of the Southern blot of the gel, using a labeled oligoprobe PA1 selected in a very highly conserved region of the genome coding for the capsid protein VP1. The IC/PCR detected less than one infectious unit of virus in 75 µl sample. Eleven Seine River samples and two drinking water specimens were monitored by this assay. The IC/PCR brings a significant contribution for increasing our knowledge of the incidence of HAV on public health.ProCite Record Number: 540Journal Short Form workformM?'/Bass, D. M. M. Baylor R. Broome H. B. Greenberg1992WMolecular basis of age-dependent gastric inactivation of rhesus rotavirus in the mouse 1741-1745!Journal of Clinical Investigation8968Rotavirus requires specific proteolytic activation by trypsin for efficient replication in tissue culture. To observe the nature of intestinal proteolytic activation of rotavirus in vivo, metabolically labeled rhesus rotavirus (RRV) grown in the presence of trypsin inhibitors was administered to adult and 10-d-old suckling mice by gavage. In the adult stomach, vp4 was cleaved in a manner distinct from in vitro trypsin cleavage. In the suckling stomach, RRV vp4 remains largely uncleaved. The alternative cleavage in the adult stomach was associated with a profound decrease in viral infectivity. vp4 from RRV recovered from the suckling small intestinal lumen was cleaved in a pattern similar or identical to in vitro trypsin-activated virus with bands comigrating with vp5* and vp8*. In contrast, vp4 was not observed in any recognizable form in RRV recovered from adult intestines. Comparison of infectivity of virus recovered from suckling and adult intestines revealed a 10,000-fold decrease in titer in the virus recovered from the adult intestine. In vitro digestions of RRV revealed that pepsin digestion can cleave RRV vp4 and markedly enhance acid-induced loss of rotavirus infectivity. Subsequent digestion with chymotrypsin removes most of the pepsin cleavage products of vp4. Virus injected directly into jejunal loops of adult mice and virus administered orally to adult mice pretreated with antiacid drugs retained infectivity. These studies indicate the development of gastric acid and pepsin secretion may be an important host defense factor in rotavirus gastroenteritis. ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workform?(RPurcell, R. H. D. C. Wong Y. Moritsugu J. L. Dienstag J. A. Routenberg J. D. Boggs1976NA microtiter solid-phase radioimmunoassay for hepatitis A antigen and antibody349-356Journal of Immunology1162A microtiter solid phase radioimmunoassy for hepatitis A antigen (HA Ag) and antibody (anti-HA) was developed. The test was more sensitive than immune adherence hemagglutination for detecting HA Ag and almost as sensitive for detecting anti-HA. The specificity and sensitivity of reagents were examined and optimum conditions for the test were determined. Radioimmunoassay, immune adherence hemagglutination, and immune electron microscopy were compared for detecting anti-HA. A serologic response to HA Ag was detected in paired sera from patients with type A hepatitis but not from patients with type B or non-A, non-B hepatitis by all three techniques. ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workformS?)fHooper, R. R. C. W. Juels J. A. Routenberg W. O. Harrison M. E. Kilpatrick S. J. Kendra J. L. Dienstag1977gAn outbreak of type A viral hepatitis at the Naval training center, San Diego: epidemiologic evaluation148-155 American Journal of Epidemiology105ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workformF?*1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1977AFoodborne and waterbrone diseases outbreaks, annaula summary 1976'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA not availableProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workform?+&Prasad, B. V. D. O. Matson A. W. Smith1994*Three-dimensional structure of calicivirus256-264Journal of Molecular Biology2403The Caliciviridae comprise a new family of single-stranded RNA viruses. While human caliciviruses cause gastroenteritis, the animal caliciviruses cause a wide range of diseases. We have determined the three-dimensional structure of a primate calicivirus using electron cryomicroscopy and computer image-processing techniques. Calicivirus is one of the rare animal viruses whose capsid is made of a single structural protein. The three-dimensional structure of the virus is distinct from that of any other animal virus. However, there are several architectural similarities with plant viruses such as tomato bushy stunt virus and turnip crinkle virus. The calicivirions are 405 A in diameter and exhibit T = 3 icosahedral symmetry. The main features of the three-dimensional structure are the 32 large surface hollows, 50 A deep and 90 A wide, at the icosahedral 5-fold and 3-fold axes, and the 90 distinctive arch-like capsomeres surrounding these hollows at the local and strict 2-fold axes. Each capsomere is a dimer of the capsid protein. Despite noticeable differences, the three quasi-equivalent subunits show common structural features: the upper bilobed domain, the central stem domain, and the lower shell domain. The 2-fold related capsid proteins interact through the bilobed domains to form the top of the arch. The structural differences between the connectors of the stem and the shell domain among the three subunits suggest the presence of a hinge region that may facilitate the capsid protein to adapt to the three quasi-equivalent environments of the T = 3 icosahedral structure. The shell domains of the pentavalent and hexavalent capsid proteins associate to form a continuous shell between the radii of 115 and 150 A. A beta-barrel structure has been suggested for the shell domain. The mass density in the inner shell between the radius of 85 and 110 A may contain a portion of the capsid protein interacting with the RNA. The features between the 45 and 85 A radius are suggestive of ordered RNA. ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformg?,XRajan, E. S. A. Bloushi B. O'Farrell A. Shattock M. G. Courtney A. Safary J. F. Fielding19962Two year old hepatitis A vaccine is as good as new 1439-1441Vaccine1415C2 year old hepatitis A vaccine; seroconversion rate; immunogenicity!This was a randomized, controlled, double-blind study assessing the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of newly produced vs 2 year old hepatitis A vaccine. Overall 215 non-immune volunteers, 18-39 years old were divided into four groups and administered vaccine at months 0, 1 and 6. Three groups each received a different vaccine lot which had been stored at 4 degrees C for 2 years, and one group received recently produced vaccine as control. The mean local and general adverse reaction rates were 59.1% and 17.4%, respectively, and all vaccinees had seroconverted by month 2. There were no significant differences in geometric mean anti-hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibody titres between the four groups. In conclusion 2 year old HAV vaccine is safe and equally immunogenic as newly produced vaccine. ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformG?-kDenes, A. E. J. L. Smith S. H. Hindman M. L. Fleissner R. Judelsohn S. J. Englender H. Tilson J. E. Maynard1977VFoodborne hepatitis A infection: a report of two urban restaurant-associated outbreaks152-162 American Journal of Epidemiology105ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformG?.1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979FAseptic meningitis outbreak at a military installation in Pennsylvania11eAseptic Meningitis Survellience, annual summary 1976, HEW-CDC publication number 79-8231, Atlanta, GA not availableProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workform C?//Prasad, B. V. R. Rothnagel X. Jiang M. K. Estes1994JThree-dimensional structure of baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsids 5117-5125Journal of Virology688IThe three-dimensional structure of the baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsid has been determined to a resolution of 2.2 nm using electron cryomicroscopy and computer image processing techniques. The empty capsid, 38.0 nm in diameter, exhibits T = 3 icosahedral symmetry and is composed of 90 dimers of the capsid protein. The striking features of the capsid structure are arch-like capsomeres, at the local and strict 2-fold axes, formed by dimers of the capsid protein and large hollows at the icosahedral 5- and 3-fold axes. Despite its distinctive architecture, the Norwalk virus capsid has several similarities with the structures of T = 3 single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses. The structure of the protein subunit appears to be modular with three distinct domains: the distal globular domain (P2) that appears bilobed, a central stem domain (P1), and a lower shell domain (S). The distal domains of the 2-fold related subunits interact with each other to form the top of the arch. The lower domains of the adjacent subunits associate tightly to form a continuous shell between the radii of 11.0 and 15.0 nm. No significant mass density is observed below the radius of 11.0 mm. It is suspected that the hinge peptide in the adjoining region between the central domain and the shell domain may facilitate the subunits adapting to various quasi-equivalent environments. Architectural similarities between the Norwalk virus capsid and the other ssRNA viruses have suggested a possible domain organization along the primary sequence of the Norwalk virus capsid protein. It is suggested that the N-terminal 250 residues constitute the lower shell domain (S) with an eight-strand beta-barrel structure and that the C-terminal residues beyond 250 constitute the protruding (P1+P2) domains. A lack of an N-terminal basic region and the ability of the Norwalk virus capsid protein to form empty T = 3 shells suggest that the assembly pathway and the RNA packing mechanisms may be different from those proposed for tomato bushy stunt virus and southern bean mosaic virus but similar to that in tymoviruses and comoviruses. ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?0&Rao, V. C. T. G. Metcalf J. L. Melnick1986{Development of a method for concentration of rotavirus and its application to recovery of rotaviruses from estuarine waters484-488&Applied and Environmental Microbiology523As part of our studies on the ecology of human enteric viruses, an improved method for detection of rotaviruses in water was developed, and their presence in Galveston Bay was monitored. Samples (378 liters) of estuarine water adjusted to pH 3.5 and a final AlCl3 molarity of 0.001 were filtered through 25-cm pleated cartridge-type filters (Filterite Corp., Timonium, Md.) of 3.0- and 0.45-micron porosity. Adsorbed virus was eluted with 1 liter of 10% tryptose phosphate broth, pH 9.5. Primary eluates were reconcentrated to a final volume of 10 to 20 ml by a simple and rapid magnetic iron oxide adsorption and elution procedure. Two percent casein at pH 8.5 effectively eluted rotavirus from iron oxide. A total of 21 of 72 samples of water, suspended solids, fluffy sediments, and compact sediments collected in different seasons in Galveston Bay yielded rotaviruses. Recovery of rotaviruses varied from 119 to 1,000 PFU/378 liters of water, 1,200 PFU/1,000 g of compact sediment, 800 to 3,800 PFU/378 liters of fluffy sediment, and 1,800 to 4,980 PFU from suspended solids derived from 378 liters of water based on immunofluorescent foci counts on cover slip cultures of fetal monkey kidney cells. ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?1Iowa State Department of Health1977(Hepatitis outbreak traced to Omaha motel1Iowa Disease Bulletin1ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?2%Trask, J. D. J. R. Paul J. L. Melnick1943XThe detction of poliomyelitis virus in flies collected during epidemics of poliomyelitis531-544 Journal of Experimental Medicine77 not availableProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform ?3Noble, R. T. J. A. Fuhrman1997,Virus decay and its causes in coastal waters77-83&Applied and Environmental Microbiology631|Marine-bacteria, aquatic environments, bacteriophages, seawater, ultraviolet, microscopy, mortality, survival, growth, oceanRecent evidence suggests that viruses play an influential role within the marine microbial food web. To understand this role, it is important to determine rates and mechanisms of virus removal and degradation, We used plaque assays to examine the decay of infectivity in lab-grown viruses seeded into natural seawater. The rates of loss of infectivity of native viruses from Santa Monica Bay and of nonnative viruses from the North Sea in the coastal seawater of Santa Monica Bay were determined. Viruses were seeded into fresh seawater that had been pretreated in various ways: filtration with a 0.2-mu m-pore-size filter to remove organisms, heat to denature enzymes, and dissolved organic matter enrichment to reconstitute enzyme activity, Seawater samples were then incubated in full sunlight, in the dark, or under glass to allow partitioning of causative agents of virus decay, Solar radiation always resulted in increased rates of loss of virus infectivity, Virus isolates which are native to Santa Monica Bay consistently degraded more slowly in full sunlight in untreated seawater (decay ranged from 4.1 to 7.2% h(-1)) than nonnative marine bacteriophages which were isolated from the North Sea (decay ranged from 6.6 to 11.1% h(-1)). All phages demonstrated susceptibility to degradation by heat-labile substances, as heat treatment reduced the decay rates to about 0.5 to 2.0% h(-1) in the dark, Filtration reduced decay rates by various amounts, averaging 20%. Heat-labile, high-molecular-weight dissolved material (>30 kDa, probably enzymes) appeared responsible for about 1/5 of the maximal decay, Solar radiation was responsible for about 1/3 to 2/3 of the maximal decay of nonnative viruses and about 1/4 to 1/3 of that of the native viruses, suggesting evolutionary adaptation to local light levels. Our results suggest that sunlight is an important contributing factor to virus decay but also point to the significance of particles and dissolved substances in seawater.ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Article workform??4DRass, B. C. B. N. Anderson A. G. Coulepis M. P. Chenoweth I. D. Gust1986kMolecular cloning of cDNA from hepatitis A virus strain HM-175 after multiple passages in vivo and in vitro 1741-1744Journal of General Virology67Pt8#HAV; cDNA cloning; multiple passageHepatitis A virus (HAV) strain HM-175 was passaged six times in marmosets, 59 times in cell culture and purified from infected cell culture supernatant fluid. The viral RNA was extracted, copied into cDNA and the cDNA:RNA hybrids were cloned into the PstI site of plasmid pBR322. The cDNA clones were authenticated by hybridization to RNA extracted from HAV-infected cells and clones representing the 3' end of the genome were identified using a previously authenticated cDNA clone. The clones represented all but 29 bases of the HAV genome. They were compared to HAV strain HM-175 cDNA cloned from viral RNA after three passages in marmosets on the basis of restriction endonuclease mapping and DNA sequencing. No differences were found in either the presence or absence of restriction endonuclease sites using 33 different restriction enzymes. Sequencing of cDNA representing bases 29 to 1002 of the HAV genome revealed eight base changes all of which were within the 5' noncoding region. ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform?5?Bostock, A. D. P. Mepham S. Phillips S. Skidmore M. H. Hambling1979@Hepatitis A infection associated with the consumption of mussels171-177Journal of Infection1ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform?6'Verlinde, J. D. J. Versteeg H. Beeuwkes19588Children infected by pigs with Coxsackie virus pneumonia 1445-1447'Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde102 not availableProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform ?7GLe Guyader, F. F. H. Neill M. K. Estes S. S. Monroe T. Ando R. L. Atmar1996}Detection and Analysis of a Small Round-Structured Virus Strain in Oysters Implicated in an Outbreak of Acute Gastroenteritis 4268-4272&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6211Outbreaks of shellfish-transmitted viral disease occur periodically, but frequently the causative agent is not identified. In November 1993, during investigation of a multistate outbreak of acute gastroenteritis, incriminated lots of oysters were collected. Oyster tissues (stomachs and digestive diverticula) were processed for virus extraction and nucleic acid purification. Human calicivirus sequences were sought by reverse transcriptase PCR using different primer sets. Amplicons were obtained from 9 of 10 shellfish samples from four different lots when primers specific for the outbreak virus strain were used. The specificity of the amplification was confirmed by hybridization. The amplicons from the nine positive oysters were cloned and sequenced. The sequence of each of the clones was identical to the others but showed some variation (7 of 81 bp) from the sequences obtained from the stools of three persons made III by the outbreak. ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Article workform?8(Reynolds, K. A. C. P. Gerba I. L. Pepper1996QDetection of infectious enteroviruses by an integrated cell culture-PCR procedure 1424-1427&Applied and Environmental Microbiology624Rapid detection of infectious enteroviruses in environmental samples was made possible by utilizing an integrated cell culture-reverse transcriptase PCR approach. By this method, the presence of infectious enterovirus was confirmed within 24 h, compared with > or = 3 days by cell culture alone. The combined methodology eliminated typical problems normally associated with direct reverse transcriptase PCR by increasing the equivalent volume of environmental sample examined and reducing the effects of inhibitory compounds. ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?91U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979,Viral hepatitis outbreaks - Georgia, Alabama581 (594-595 for issue 50)$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2849 & 50ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?:&Ward, R. J. L. Melnick D. M. Horstmann1945EPoliomyelitis virus in fly-contaminated food collected at an epidemic491-493Science101 not availableProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?<&Robertson, B. H. V. K. Brown B. Khanna1989PAltered hepatitis A VP1 protein resulting from cell culture propagation of virus207-212Virus Research1331Hepatitis A; cell-culture adapted; wild type; VP1The published sequence of hepatitis A virus (HAV), strain HAS-15, after 20-30 cell culture passages contains an 18 nucleotide deletion (Ovchinnikov et al., 1985) within the VP1 genome region. This results in a significant amino acid difference of the VP1 protein when this strain of HAV is compared with other published HAV sequences. Comparison of the polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic migration of HAS-15 HAV and two other strains of HAV revealed that the HAS-15 VP1 molecule migrated faster than the VP1 molecule of the other two strains. Enzymatic amplification of viral RNA derived from the original stool suspension and cell culture adapted HAS-15 using the polymerase chain reaction followed by hybridization analyses with selected synthetic oligonucleotide probes revealed that the original wild type virus did not contain the deletion. These results confirm that cell culture adapted HAS-15 contains an eighteen nucleotide deletion which apparently was selected during cell culture adaptation. ProCite Record Number: 600Journal Short Form workform?=1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1982,Outbreak of foodborne hepatitis - New Jersey150$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report3112ProCite Record Number: 600Journal Short Form workform?>GJothikumar, N. P. Khanna R. Paulmurugan S. Kamatchiammal P. Padmanabhan1995A simple device for the concentration and detection of enterovirus, hepatitis E virus and rotavirus from water samples by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction401-415Journal of Virological Methods553|(Original) Waterborne virus, concentration, enterovirus, hepatitis E virus, rotavirus, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assayA simultaneous concentration of enteroviruses, hepatitis E virus, and rotavirus from drinking water samples through a filtration column filled with granular activated carbon (GAC) was achieved. Urea-arginine phosphate buffer (UAPB) as an eluent at pH 9.0 was used for effective desorption and elution of viruses from GAC. Further concentration of viruses with magnesium chloride enabled nucleic acid extraction, cDNA synthesis, amplification with a specific set of primers for enterovirus, hepatitis E virus and rotavirus. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products were then confirmed by Southern transfer and hybridization with the relevant probes. The efficacy of the protocol was established with 100 1 of water samples seeded with poliovirus-1, providing 74% recovery in granular activated carbon based UAPB-RT-PCR. The GAC-based method for concentration of viruses from water samples was preferred, despite its somewhat lower efficacy compared to 80% in membrane filter based UAPB-RT-PCR protocol, due to the specific requirements of short-time and savings in cost of analyses. The protocol was used for the detection of waterborne viruses from 24 drinking water sources in urban areas of New Delhi. Direct isolation of viruses from water samples revealed that the 4 samples were positive for enteroviruses, two for hepatitis E virus, and 10 samples for rotavirus. One sample was positive for both hepatitis E virus and rotavirus, and another for all the 3 types of viruses. ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Article workform??3Ross, B. C. B. N. Anderson P. C. Edwards I. D. Gust1989~Nucleotide sequence of high-passage hepatitis A virus strain HM175: comparison with wild-type and cell culture-adapted strains 2850-2810Journal of General Virology70Pt105Hepatitis A; nucleotide sequence; high passage strainThe nucleotide sequence of cDNA from a high-passage, cell culture-adapted variant of hepatitis A virus strain HM175 was compared with the previously determined sequences of wild-type virus and two other cell culture-adapted variants. A total of 42 nucleotide changes were detected when the sequence was compared with wild-type virus. Five of these changes were common to all cell culture-adapted strains and a further two changes were shared by the strains that had experienced the greatest number of cell culture passages. The mutations were distributed throughout the genome coding for amino acid substitutions in regions 2B, 2C and 3D with silent changes in 1C and the 5' non-coding region. The possible relevance of these mutations to cell culture adaptation and attenuation is discussed. ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Short Form workform?@0State Department of Health Services (California)1981AHepatitis A outbreak associated with a food handler - Los Angeles1"California Morbidity Weekly Report39ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Short Form workform?A$Safferman, R. S. M. E. Gohr T. Goyke1988Assessment of recovery efficiency of beef extract reagents for concentrating viruses from municipal wastewater sludge solids by the organic flocculation procedure309-316&Applied and Environmental Microbiology542ZThis study was designed to assess the capacity of beef extract reagents to form flocs suitable for virus adsorption. Reagent comparisons resulted in the establishment of a modified organic flocculation procedure to concentrate viruses desorbed from sewage sludge solids with currently available modified powdered beef extracts. The method, based on supplementation with paste beef extract floc, achieved virus recoveries comparable to those obtained with powdered beef extract produced before a 1979 change in the manufacturing process. When primary settled sludge solids originating from mostly domestic waste were eluted with an unsupplemented modified powdered beef extract, high virus recovery efficiency was observed upon concentration by organic flocculation. This appreciable increase might have been due to floc-forming substances that were present in the primary settled sludge. These substances did not appear to be present in settled sludge collected from biologically treated wastes. Apparently, the floc-forming substances had been either removed or substantially altered during biological treatment. ProCite Record Number: 620Journal Short Form workform?B%Schwab, K. J. R. de Leon M. D. Sobsey1993?Development of PCR methods for enteric virus detection in water211-218Water Science and Technology273-4rRT-PCR; beef extract; enteric viruses; concerntration; purification; PEG precipitation; spin-column chromatography9This study developed a reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection system for enteric viruses in sample concerntrates obtained by conventional filter adsorption-elution methods. One liter beef extract (BE)-glycine (G) eluant seeded with poliovirus 1 and hepatitis A virus (HAV) was used as a model system and the eluant further processed for RT-PCR compatibility. Sample concentration and purification procedures consisted of polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, Pro-Cipitate (Affinity Technology, New Brunswick, No) precipitation, a second PEG precipitation, spin-column chromatography, and ultrafiltration.. Sample volumes are reduced from 1L to 20-40 µL and purified sufficiently for viral detecton by RT-PCR. As little as 3 PFU of poliovirus 1 in an initial 1 L eluate were detected by RT-PCR.ProCite Record Number: 630Journal Short Form workform?C1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973Waterborne hepatitis A -Alabama118$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2214ProCite Record Number: 630Journal Short Form workformd?D4Sobsey, M. D. C. H. Dean M. E. Knuckles R. A. Wagner1980>Interactions and survival of enteric viruses in soil materials92-101&Applied and Environmental Microbiology401aThere were marked differences in the abilities of eight different soil materials to remove and retain viruses from settled sewage, but for each soil material the behavior of two different viruses, poliovirus type 1 and reovirus type 3, was often similar. Virus adsorption to soil materials was rapid, the majority occurring within 15 min. Clayey materials efficiently adsorbed both viruses from wastewater over a range of pH and total dissolved solids levels. Sands and organic soil materials were comparatively poor adsorbents, but in some cases their ability to adsorb viruses increased at low pH and with the addition of total dissolved solids or divalent cations. Viruses in suspensions of soils materil in settled sewage survived for considerable time periods, despite microbial activity. In some cases virus survival was prolonged in suspensions of soil materials compared to soil-free controls. Although sandy and organic soil materials were poor virus adsorbents when suspended in wastewater, they gave > 95% virus removal from intermittently applied wastewater as unsaturated, 10 cm-deep columns. However, considerable quantities of the retained viruses were washed from the columns by simulated rainfall. Under the same conditions, clayey soil material removed > 99.9995% of the viruses from applied wastewater, and were washed from the columns by simulated rainfall.ProCite Record Number: 640Journal Short Form workform?E1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972Hepatitis - Alabama439&444$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2151ProCite Record Number: 640Journal Short Form workform ?F'Sobsey, M. D. S. E. Oglesbee D. A. Wait1985MEvaluation of methods for concentrating hepatitis A virus from drinking water 1457-1463&Applied and Environmental Microbiology506 By using recently developed cultivation and assay systems, currently available methods for concentrating enteric viruses from drinking water by adsorption to and subsequent elution from microporous filters followed by organic flocculation were evaluated for their ability to recover hepatitis A virus (HAV). Cell culture-adapted HAV (strain HM-175) in seeded tapwater was efficiently adsorbed by both electronegative (Filterite) and electropositive (Virosorb 1MDS) filters at pH and ionic conditions previously used for other enteric viruses. Adsorbed HAV was efficiently eluted from these filters by beef extract eluents at pH 9.5. Eluted HAV was further concentrated efficiently by acid precipitation (organic flocculation) of eluents containing beef extract made from powdered, but not paste, sources. By using optimum adsorption conditions for each type of filter, HAV was concentrated greater than 100-fold from samples of seeded tapwater, with about 50% recovery of the initial infectious virus added to the samples. The ability to recover and quantify HAV in contaminated drinking water with currently available methods should prove useful in further studies to determine the role of drinking water in HAV transmission. By using recently developed cultivation and assay systems, currently available methods for concentrating enteric viruses from drinking water by adsorption to and subsequent elution from microporous filters followed by organic flocculation were evaluated for their ability to recover hepatitis A virus (HAV). Cell culture-adapted HAV (strain HM-175) in seeded tapwater was efficiently adsorbed by both electronegative (Filterite) and electropositive (Virosorb 1MDS) filters at pH and ionic conditions previously used for other enteric viruses. Adsorbed HAV was efficiently eluted from these filters by beef extract eluents at pH 9.5. Eluted HAV was further concentrated efficiently by acid precipitation (organic flocculation) of eluents containing beef extract made from powdered, but not paste, sources. By using optimum adsorption conditions for each type of filter, HAV was concentrated greater than 100-fold from samples of seeded tapwater, with about 50% recovery of the initial infectious virus added to the samples. The ability to recover and quantify HAV in contaminated drinking water with currently available methods should prove useful in further studies to determine the role of drinking water in HAV transmission. ProCite Record Number: 650Journal Short Form workform?G1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973-Hepatitis A among military personnel - Turkey283-284$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2233ProCite Record Number: 650Journal Short Form workform?H.Spillmann, S. K. F. Traub M. Schwyzer R. Wyler1987=Inactivation of animal viruses during sewage sludge treatment 2077-2081&Applied and Environmental Microbiology539Using a previously developed filter adsorption technique, the inactivation of a human rotavirus, a coxsackievirus B5, and a bovine parvovirus was monitored during sludge treatment processes. During conventional anaerobic mesophilic digestion at 35 to 36 degrees C, only minor inactivation of all three viruses occurred. The k' values measured were 0.314 log10 unit/day for rotavirus, 0.475 log10 unit/day for coxsackievirus B5, and 0.944 log10 unit/day for parvovirus. However, anaerobic thermophilic digestion at 54 to 56 degrees C led to rapid inactivation of rotavirus (k' greater than 8.5 log10 units/h) and of coxsackievirus B5 (k' greater than 0.93 log10 unit/min). Similarly, aerobic thermophilic fermentation at 60 to 61 degrees C rapidly inactivated rotavirus (k' = 0.75 log10 unit/min) and coxsackievirus B5 (k' greater than 1.67 log10 units/min). Infectivity of parvovirus, however, was only reduced by 0.213 log10 unit/h during anaerobic thermophilic digestion and by 0.353 log10 unit/h during aerobic thermophilic fermentation. Furthermore, pasteurization at 70 degrees C for 30 min inactivated the parvovirus by 0.72 log10 unit/30 min. In all experiments the contribution of temperature to the total inactivation was determined separately and was found to be predominant at process temperatures above 54 degrees C. In conclusion, the most favorable treatment to render sludge hygienically safe from the virological point of view would be a thermal treatment (60 degrees C) to inactivate thermolabile viruses, followed by an anaerobic mesophilic digestion to eliminate thermostable viruses that are more sensitive to chemical and microbial inactivations. ProCite Record Number: 660Journal Short Form workform?I1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1974?Foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks: annual summary 197321 & 40'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 660Journal Short Form workform?JStramer, S. L. D. O. Cliver1984ESeptage treatments to reduce the numbers of bacteria and polioviruses566-572&Applied and Environmental Microbiology483Disposal of the pumped contents of septic tanks (septage) represents a possible means of dissemination of enteric pathogens including viruses, since persistence of enteroviruses in septic tank sludge for greater than 100 days has been demonstrated. The risk of exposure to potentially infectious agents can be reduced by disinfecting septages before their disposal. Of the septage disinfectants examined (technical and analytical grade glutaraldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, heat treatments, and a combination of heat and hydrogen peroxide), the treatment including hydrogen peroxide (5 mg, plus 0.33 mg of trichloroacetic acid, per ml of septage) and 55 degrees C killed virtually all the bacteria in septage within 1 h, whereas 55 degrees C alone inactivated inoculated polioviruses within 30 min. Virus was the most sensitive to heat, whereas fecal coliforms appeared to be the most sensitive to all chemical treatments. The responses of fecal streptococci and virus to both grades of glutaraldehyde (each at 1 mg/ml) were similar. Virus was more resistant than either fecal streptococci or total bacteria to low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (1 to 5 mg/ml); however, virus and fecal streptococci were more labile than total bacteria to the highest peroxide concentration (10 mg/ml) examined. It is possible that the treatment combining heat and hydrogen peroxide was the most effective in reducing the concentrations of all bacteria, because catalase and peroxidases as well as other enzymes were heat inactivated, although catalase seems the most likely cause of damage. However, this most effective treatment does not appear to be practical for on-site use as performed, so further work on septage disinfection is recommended. ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform&?K Public Health Laboratory Service19802MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8048ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform?LHealth and Welfare Canada1980?Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada: annual summary 197689ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform?M8Syvänen, A. C. M. Bengtström J. Tenhunen H. Söderlund1988XQuantification of polymerase chain reaction products by affinity-based hybrid collection 11327-11337Nucleic Acids Research1623We have used oligonucleotides modified with biotin in the 5'-end as primers in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplification. This results in the synthesis of 5'-biotinylated DNA molecules, which are detected by hybridization to a labelled probe in solution. The formed hybrids are collected on an avidin-matrix by mediation of the biotin residue of the target molecules. The affinity-based hybrid collection method is quantitative and makes it possible to measure the amount of DNA produced in the PCR-amplification. At low concentrations of template the efficiency of the process is close to 100%, making it possible to detect the presence of a few molecules of target DNA in 25 cycles. With high template concentrations the efficiency of the process is low. ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform?N Public Health Laboratory Service1980Hepatitis A and cockles in Kent4MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8047ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform?OHealth and Welfare Canada1981?Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada: annual summary 197793ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform/?P6Taylor, G. M. R. D. Goldin P. Karayiannis H. C. Thomas19926In situ hybridization studies in hepatitis A infection642648 Hepatology163NAn in situ hybridization method using radiolabeled oligonucleotide probes was developed to study primary sites of hepatitis A virus replication in an experimental animal model of infection. Hepatitis A genomic sequences were demonstrated in hepatocytes of four marmosets with acute hepatitis A by use of antisense probes. In two of these animals, staining was also found when a sense probe was used, which is consistent with active replication in the hepatocytes. The specificity of the hybridization signal was confirmed by neutralization with "cold" (i.e., unlabeled) probes and by absence of hybridization with non-A hepatitis and reverse antisense probes. The hepatocyte appeared to be the only cell type showing staining. No hybridization was found in other organs, including the intestine (n = 4) and, in one animal, the kidney and spleen. ProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform?Q Public Health Laboratory Service1980 Hepatitis A3-4MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8047ProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform?R,U. S. Department of Health and Human Service1982AWater-related disease outbreaks survelliance: annual summary 19809(Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform/?S>Amela, C. I. Pachón R. Bueno C. de Miguel F. Martinez-Navarro1995vTrends in hepatitis A virus infection with reference to the process of urbanization in the greater Madrid area (Spain)569-573 European Journal of Epidemiology115P(Original) Epidemiologic method, hepatitis A virus, seroprevalence, transmissionHepatitis A is an infection transmitted by the fecal-oral route. Endemicity within a specific country is directly related to sanitation and hygienic standards, while being inversely related to socioeconomic conditions. We studied how the process of urbanization witnessed in Madrid had influenced the transmission of hepatitis A infection. In the Madrid Autonomous Region, this process first began in the early sixties and was not brought to a close until the late seventies. Catalytic models were used to estimate the annual infection rate, lambda, on the basis of seroprevalence data stratified by age. A cohort effect related to a fall-off in infancy-related hepatitis A virus (HAV) is to be observed in the results for the last few years. The model permits four birth cohort-based groups to be differentiated by lambda: individuals born pre-1960, lambda = 0.082 (95% CI 0.095-0.070); those born in the early sixties, lambda = 0.052 (95% CI 0.060-0.042); whose members were born in the late sixties, lambda = 0.033 (95% CI 0.041-0.025); and those born in the late seventies, lambda = 0.017 (95% CI 0.020-0.013). The first group includes those born before the urbanization process had started. The second and third groups coincide with the development stage of that process, hence exhibiting transitional rates. The fourth group reflects the process in its consolidation stage. This reduction in the transmission of infection has changed the manner of presentation, so that while isolated cases or small outbreaks tend to be more common nowadays, occasionally epidemics may evolve explosively. The average age at presentation has risen and the likelihood of symptomatic infection is higher.ProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workform?T8Tilzey, A. J. S. J. Palmer C. Harrington M. J. O'Doherty1996FHepatitis A vaccine responses in HIV-positive persons with haemophilia 1039-1041Vaccine1411The safety and immunogenicity of subcutaneously (s.c.) administered hepatitis A (HA) vaccine was evaluated in HIV positive and negative patients with haemophilia and healthy male controls. The vaccine was well tolerated. Seroconversion occurred among all controls after one dose of vaccine but was delayed among patients, particularly if HIV-positive-4 of 17 (24%) failed to respond to three doses of vaccine. Following the third dose of vaccine, geometric mean titres were significantly higher among controls (1354) than among HIV infected patients (204) (P < 0.05). Non-responders failed to develop an immune response following boosting with high titre vaccine. Patients with haemophilia may be vaccinated against HA s.c. but consideration should be given to ensuring that HIV-positive individuals with haemophilia and other immunosuppressed individuals should have their immune responses checked since additional booster doses or passive prophylaxis may be necessary in such individuals. ProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workformF?UGalbraith, N. S.1982Unpublished information-Communicable Disease Service, London, EnglandProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workform1?WVTicehurst, J. R. S. M. Feinstone T. Chestnut N. C. Tassopoulos H. Popper R. H. Purcell1987UDetection of hepatitis A virus by extraction of viral RNA and molecular hybridization 1822-1829 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2510Hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA was extracted from cell culture, serum, liver, and feces and then detected by molecular hybridization with cloned HAV cDNA. Hybridization was approximately 10-fold more sensitive than immune electron microscopy or radioimmunoassay was and less sensitive than was assays of HAV infectivity in primates or in cell culture. As little as 10(3) 50% infective doses of HAV, or approximately 0.1 pg of viral RNA, was detected by this method. Analysis of fecal specimens from an experimentally infected marmoset and an epidemic of hepatitis A showed that HAV excretion could often be detected later in the illness by hybridization than by radioimmunoassay. This technique should be widely applicable for detection and analysis of HAV RNA. ProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workformF?X Alter, M. J.1982Unpublished information(Centers for Disease Control, Phoneix, AZProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workform?Y Warren, W. R.1953$Epidemiology of infectious hepatitis313-335Armed Force Medical Journal4ProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workform ?\+Farquhar, J. D. J. Stokes Jr. W. D. Schrack1952OEpidemic of viral hepatitis apparently spread by drinking water and by contact 991-993+Journal of the American Medical Association149ProCite Record Number: 720Journal Short Form workform?] Tsai, Y. L. B. Tran C. J. Palmer1995JAnalysis of viral RNA persistence in seawater by reverse transcriptase-PCR363-366&Applied and Environmental Microbiology611It is important to determine the stability of naked viral RNA in seawater, since false-positive results can occur when reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) is used to detect viruses if the RT-PCR amplifies free RNA instead of RNA from intact viruses. An acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform method was used to extract total RNA from a filtered poliovirus cell culture suspension. The sensitivity of detection in this viral RNA study was 600 fg when RT-PCR was used. The extracted total RNA was seeded into filtered and unfiltered seawater, and the resulting preparations were incubated at 4 degrees C and at room temperature (23 +/- 1 degrees C). Our results showed that the seeded RNA was more stable in filtered seawater than in unfiltered seawater at both temperatures. The viral RNA could not be detected by the RT-PCR after 2 days of incubation in unfiltered seawater and after 28 days of incubation in filter-sterilized seawater. Therefore, because of the relatively short life of viral RNA in natural water, the detection of virus in environmental samples by the RT-PCR was mainly due to the presence of well-protected viral particles and not due to the presence of naked viral RNA. ProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?^Noordam, A. L. R. A. Coutinho1977SUnpublished information, Internal Health Department memo and personal communicationProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?_Sundell, C. G.1949EEpidemic of hepatitis in Grangesberg in Autumn of 1948 - Spring, 1949 2133-2149Svenska Läkartidningen46ProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?`Vento, S. B. M. McFarlane C. G. McSorley S. Ranieri G. Giuliani-Piccari P. R. Dal Monte G. Verucchi R. Williams F. Chiodo I. G. McFarlane1988CLiver autoreactivity in acute virus A, B and non-A, non-B hepatitis1-7+Journal of Clinical & Laboratory Immunology251As part of an investigation into the question of whether virus-induced autoreactivity might contribute to liver damage in viral hepatitis, serial studies (from onset through recovery) of circulating liver autoantibodies have been performed in patients with uncomplicated acute virus A (AVH-A), B (AVH-B) and non-A, non-B (AVH-NANB) hepatitis in whom the time of onset of symptoms could be precisely documented. One hundred and forty-four sera from 35 patients were tested by radioimmunoassay for autoantibodies against the liver-derived lipoprotein complex, LSP, and also against one of its constituents--the asialoglycoprotein receptor, known as hepatic lectin (HL). Anti-LSP antibodies were found in all 10 patients with AVH-A, in 17/18 with AVH-B and in 3/7 with AVH-NANB at titres that declined during recovery. Anti-HL antibodies were detected concurrently in 6 of the AVH-A patients and in 5 with AVH-B but on only 1 occasion in 1 patient with AVH-NANB. Transient cellular immunity to LSP, assayed by a T-lymphocyte migration inhibitory factor test, was detected in 4 of the 6 AVH-B patients tested, 2 of whom also showed concurrent reactivity to HL, but these cellular immune responses did not correlate with production of anti-LSP and/or anti-HL. The findings indicate that humoral immune responses to liver cell surface antigens are frequently triggered by hepatitis A and B viruses, possibly via induction of autoreactive, T-cell independent, liver antigen-specific B lymphocytes. These liver-specific autoreactions have the potential to contribute to hepatocellular damage in virus A and B hepatitis but it seems unlikely that autoimmunity plays a significant pathogenetic role in NANB viral infections. ProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform&?a1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare196718-19UFoodborne outbreaks: status report for 1967, Centers for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform?b Waltrip, S.1982KUnpublished information, HER, United States Environmental Protection AgencyProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform?c Cliver, D. O.1994'Epidemiology of viral foodborne disease263-266Journal of Food Protection573Virus transmission via foods begins with fecal shedding of viruses by humans. Foodborne viruses infect perorally: These same agents have alternative fecal-oral routes, including person-to-person transmission and the water vehicle. No zoonotic viruses are transmitted via foods in North America. Viruses rank high among foodborne disease agents in the United States, even though observation, diagnosis, and reporting of foodborne viral disease are inefficient. Risk assessment in developed countries considers viral infection rates and personal hygiene of food handlers, as well as the opportunities for contamination of shellfish and other foods by untreated sewage. Licensing of a vaccine against hepatitis A that could be administered to food handlers in North America would provide an important means of preventing foodborne viral disease. However, the most general concern in preventing all foodborne viral disease is to keep all human fecal contamination out of food.ProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform?dWallis, C. J. L. Melnick1961&Stabilization of poliovirus by cations683-700%Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine19 no abstractProCite Record Number: 750'Journal Short Form workform (42) review?e1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1962Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform?f Barron, R. D.1954?Infectious hepatitis in Army installation in the Kingston area 25-30!Canadian Journal of Public Health43ProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform,?g+Weingold, S. E. J. J. Guzewich J. K. Fudala19947Use of foodborne disease data for HACCP risk assessment820-830Journal of Food Protection579N(Original) HACCP, foodborne disease, risk assessment, United-States, outbreaksMethodological limitations in the way foodborne disease data are analyzed and reported nationally make it difficult to use it for Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) risk assessment. This warranted the creation of a new system of classification and analysis. Foodborne disease data from reported outbreaks in New York State (NYS) between the years 1980-1991 (1,528 outbreaks involving 31,675 cases) were reviewed to develop two new categories by which foodborne disease vehicles were classified: Method of Preparation and Significant Ingredient. In addition, the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) list of contributing factors was expanded to more accurately reflect common problems encountered in these outbreaks. Data grouped by this method can be more readily used for the hazard analysis, identification of Critical Control Points (CCPs) and establish critical limits steps of the HACCP system. By identifying these features in a system that closely relates to the food preparation practices, corrective action can be taken to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of illness from that particular food. Two dimensional tables of these new data show trends in preparation methods, ingredients and contributing factors that can be used for risk assessment of establishments and their menus. A more detailed table shows agents of concern and likely CCPs associated with specific ingredients for each method of preparation that more accurately links foodborne disease data with HACCP. The presented data illustrates how this new method of analysis can be used to perform HACCP risk assessment. Increased support of foodborne disease surveillance would provide the data needed to make this new system a valuable tool for use in HACCP risk assessment.ProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?i1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?jArcher, T. C. R.1954IAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis apparently due to a water-borne agent161-170'Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps100ProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?l#Wang, C. H. S. Y. Tschen B. Flehmig1996gQuantitative determination of immune response against hepatitis A virus capsids after natural infection355-356Vaccine144ProCite Record Number: 770'Journal Short Form workform (42) letter?m1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1978Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 770Journal Short Form workform?n&Tucker, C. B. W. H. Owen R. P. Farnell1954HAn outbreak of infectious hepatitis apparently transmitted through water732-740Southern Medical Journal47ProCite Record Number: 770Journal Short Form workform?oaHerwaldt, B. L. J. F. Lew C. L. Moe D. C. Lewis C. D. Humphrey S. S. Monroe E. W. Pon R. I. Glass1994~Characterization of a Variant Strain of Norwalk Virus from a Food-borne Outbreak of Gastroenteritis on a Cruise Ship in Hawaii861-866 Journal of Clinical Microbiology324A gastroenteritis outbreak affecting at least 217 (41%) of 527 passengers on a cruise ship was caused by a variant strain of Norwalk virus (NV) that is related to but distinct from the prototype NV strain. Consumption of fresh-cut fruit served at two buffets was significantly associated with illness (P < or = 0.01), and a significant dose-response relationship was evident between illness and the number of various fresh-cut fruit items eaten. Seven (58%) of 12 paired serum specimens from ill persons demonstrated at least fourfold rises in antibody response to recombinant NV capsid antigen. A 32-nm small round-structured virus was visualized by electron microscopy in 4 (29%) of 14 fecal specimens, but none of the 8 specimens that were examined by an enzyme immunoassay for NV antigen demonstrated antigen. Four (40%) of 10 fecal specimens were positive by reverse transcriptase-PCR by using primer pairs selected from the polymerase region of NV. In a 145-bp region, the PCR product shared only 72% nucleotide sequence identity with the reference NV strain and 77% nucleotide sequence identity with Southampton virus but shared 95% nucleotide sequence identity with UK2 virus, a United Kingdom reference virus strain. In addition, the outbreak virus was serotyped as UK2 virus by solid-phase immune electron microscopy. The genetic and antigenic divergence of the outbreak strain from the reference NV strain highlights the need for more broadly reactive diagnostic assays and for improved understanding of the relatedness of the NV group of agents. ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform&?q Public Health Laboratory Service19822MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London82ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform?rAnders, W. T. Kima19595On the epidemiology of hepatitis epidemica in Germany1-34^Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene I. Original176ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform$?sGLo, S. V. A. M. Connolly S. R. Palmer D. Wright P. D. Thomas D. Joynson1994The role of the pre-symptomatic food handler in a common source outbreak of food-borne SRSV gastroenteritis in a group of hospitals513-521Epidemiology and Infection1133A common source outbreak of small round structure virus (SRSV) gastroenteritis affected 81 patients and 114 staff in four hospitals served by one central hospital kitchen. Eating salad items was found to be significantly associated with illness. In a cohort study of a staff buffet function eating turkey salad sandwiches was associated with illness (relative risk = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.4-4.1; P = 0.003), and a case control study of patients in one hospital showed an odds ratio of 6.6 (95% CI = 1.0-71.6; P = 0.04) for eating tuna salad and becoming ill. One of two food handlers who prepared the salads became ill the day following food preparation; she also had a young child at home who had been ill with a gastrointestinal illness during the previous two days. Contamination of food by mechanical transmission of the virus from the child via clothes and hands of the mother, or pre-symptomatic faecal excretion in the mother are possible explanations of contamination of food. ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workformX?t Ward, R. L.1982NEvidence that microorganisms cause inactivation of viruses in activated sludge 1221-1224Appl. Environ. Microbiol.435xVirus loss in activated sludge appeared to be caused by microorganisms. This conclusion is supported by the finding that poliovirus infectivity decreased during incubation in mixed-liquor suspended solids, primarily because of a sedimentable, heat-sensitive component. Furthermore, broth spiked with mixed-liquor suspended solids acquired antiviral activity during incubation.ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workform?u Jensen, R. A.1955TEpidemic hepatitis: report on a hospital epidemic and an epidemic in a populous area458-460&Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforning75ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workform?v*Morgan, D. M. E. Black A. Charlett H. John19944Viral gastroenteritis associated with a sandwich barR91-R92Communicable Disease Report48 not availableProCite Record Number: 800Journal Short Form workform?x)Peczenik, A. D. W. Duttweiler R. H. Moser1956:An apparently water-borne outbreak of infectious hepatitis 1008-1017!American Journal of Public Health46ProCite Record Number: 800Journal Short Form workform?zDavis, T. R. A.1957:An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in two Arctic villages881-884 New England Journal of Medicine 256ProCite Record Number: 810Journal Short Form workform?| Sanyal, M. C.1957YEpidemic of infectious hepatitis amongst personnel of the armed forces, Delhi (1955-1956)91-99.Indian Journal of Medical Research Supplement 45ProCite Record Number: 820Journal Short Form workform?}'Public Health Laboratory Service, U. K.1994YGastrointestinal virus infections, England and Wales: laboratory reports, weeks 94/22-25120Communicable Disease Report426ProCite Record Number: 820Journal Short Form workformW?~Parker, S. P. W. D. Cubitt1994Measurement of IgA responses following Norwalk virus infection and other human caliciviruses using a recombinant Norwalk virus protein EIA143-151Epidemiology and Infection1131,An enzyme immunoassay employing recombinant Norwalk virus capsid protein was evaluated for the measurement of IgA responses. Tests on 23 volunteers and patients known to have been infected with Norwalk virus (NV) showed that 19 developed significant IgA responses, 2 had unchanging levels of IgA and 2 failed to respond. There was no evidence of IgA responses to NV following infection with Hawaii or Snow Mountain-like viruses. Tests on sera from patients involved in outbreaks associated with eating contaminated shellfish suggest that some patients may have been infected with more than one strain of calicivirus. The use of the rNV EIA for measuring IgA and IgG responses in patients involved in a major outbreak of food poisoning affecting hospital staff indicated that the causative agent was probably NV. ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform!?(Ward, R. L. D. R. Knowlton P. E. Winston1986;Mechanism of inactivation of enteric viruses in fresh water450-459&Applied and Environmental Microbiology523,Fresh water obtained from nine sources was shown to cause inactivation of poliovirus. Further testing with four of these water samples showed that enteric viruses from different genera were consistently inactivated in these freshwater samples. Studies on the cause of inactivation were conducted with echovirus type 12 as the model virus. The results revealed that the virucidal agents in the waters tested could not be separated from microorganisms. Any treatment that removed or inactivated microorganisms caused loss of virucidal activity. Microbial growth in a sterilized creek water seeded with a small amount of stream water resulted in concomitant production of virucidal activity. When individual bacterial isolates obtained from a stream were grown in this sterilized creek water, most (22 of 27) produced a large amount of virucidal activity, although the amount varied from one isolate to the next. Active and inactive isolates were represented by both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Examination of echoviruses inactivated in stream water revealed that loss of infectivity first correlated with a slight decrease in the sedimentation coefficient of virus particles. The cause appeared to be cleavage of viral proteins, most notably, VP-4 and, to a lesser extent, VP-1. Viral RNA associated with particles was also cleaved but the rate was slower than loss of infectivity. These results suggest that proteolytic bacterial enzymes inactivate echovirus particles in fresh water by cleavage of viral proteins, thus exposing the viral RNA to nuclease digestion. ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform?Sidhu, A. S. S. S. Nair1957KSample survey on the incidence of infectious hepatitis in Delhi (1955-1956)31-47-Indian Journal of Medical Research Supplement45ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform?Ward, R. L. C. S. Ashley1978BComparative effects of ammonia and related compounds on poliovirus198-200Appl. Environ. Microbiol.361The abilities of ammonia and related compounds to inactivate poliovirus were compared. Compounds virucidal at pH 9.5 had the following order of activities: ethylamine greater than propylamine, dimethylamine, methylamine greater than ammonia greater than 2-methoxyethylamine.ProCite Record Number: 840Journal Short Form workform?2Kheifets, L. B. T. L. Kamolokova R. A. Kantorovich1958;An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in an Arctic settlement48-50Problems of Virology3ProCite Record Number: 840Journal Short Form workform?Zhumatov, K. H. F. G. Dardik1958,A waterborne outbreak of infective hepatitis37-41Probelms of Virology3ProCite Record Number: 850Journal Short Form workform? Fries, R.1994Viruses in foods: A review740-742Fleischwirtsch747ReviewProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workform1? Ward, R. L.1978/Mechanism of poliovirus inactivation by ammonia299-305 J. Virol.262Poliovirus inactivation by ammonia causes a slight reduction in the sedimentation coefficients of viral particles, but has no detectable effect on either the electrophoretic pattern of viral capsid proteins or the isoelectric points of inactivated particles. These virions still attach to cells, but are unable to repress host translation or stimulate the synthesis of detectable amounts of viral RNA. Although ammonia has no detectable effect on naked poliovirus RNA, it causes cleavage of this RNA when still within viral particles. Therefore, the RNA genome appears to be the only component of poliovirus significantly affected by ammonia.ProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workform? Wilson, J. G.1957#An outbreak of infectious hepatitis832-833medical Journal of Australia1ProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workformN?Greiser-Wilke, I. R. Fries1994FMethods for detection of viral contaminations in food of animal origin284-290%Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift1017\Contamination of foods of animal origin with pathogenic human viruses may occur during handling or through polluted water. Most of these viruses are pathogens originating from the human gastrointestinal tract. They can be transmitted by the consumption of contaminated food and often cause disease. A survey is given of DNA- and RNA-viruses that may occur as contaminants of foods. In addition, the classical methods for detecting viral contaminations in foods are summarized. They are based on the effects after virus inoculation of cell cultures. Besides the fact that these methods are not economic and time consuming, they do not permit detection of some of the most important foodborne gastroenteritis viruses. The possibility of replacing these methods by detecting the viral genomes using hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is discussed. ProCite Record Number: 870Journal Short Form workform?:Mosley, J. W. W. D. Schrack Jr. T. W. Densham L. D. Matter1959[Infectious hepatitis in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania; I. A probable water-borne epidemic555American Journal of Medicine26ProCite Record Number: 870Journal Short Form workform?3Bouchriti, N. S. M. Goyal A. El Marrakchi M. Jellal1994WComparison of three methods for the concentration of poliovirus from Moroccan shellfish996-1000Journal of Food Protection5711i(Original) Oysters, enterovirus, concentration method, hepatitis, enteric viruses, oysters, contaminationkThree methods were evaluated for the concentration of poliovirus from artificially contaminated oysters (Crassostrea gigas), mussels (Mytilus edulis) and carpet-shell clams (Ruditapes decussatus) grown in Morocco. The methods tested were: an adsorption-elution-precipitation method, a beef extract elution acid-precipitation method, and a non-fat dry milk elution acid-precipitation method. For all shellfish species tested, the adsorption-elution-precipitation method yielded the lowest average virus recovery (27%), whereas the two elution-precipitation methods yielded average virus recoveries of 42% each. The beef extract elution acid-precipitation method yielded the highest virus recovery with clams (53%), whereas non-fat dry milk elution acid-precipitation was advantageous for mussels providing average virus recovery of 47%. For oysters, none of the tested methods gave satisfactory virus recovery. These results point towards the need for the development of better method(s) for the concentration of viruses from Moroccan oysters, while for mussels and clams, the elution-acid precipitation methods may be satisfactory.ProCite Record Number: 880Journal Short Form workform?Mosley, J. W. W. W. Smither1957MInfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak probably caused by drinking water590-595New England Journal of Medicine257ProCite Record Number: 880Journal Short Form workform?%Lees, D. N. K. Henshilwood W. J. Dore1994eDevelopment of a method for detection of enteroviruses in shellfish by PCR with poliovirus as a model 2999-3005&Applied and Environmental Microbiology608The application of the PCR to complex samples is hindered by amplification inhibitors. We describe a reverse transcription-PCR-based method capable of inhibitor removal for the detection of enteroviruses in shellfish. Initial virus extraction stages based on a modified polyethylene glycol precipitation technique (G.D. Lewis and T.G. Metcalf, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:1983-1988, 1988) were followed by virus purification with 1,1,2-trichloro,2,2,1-trifluoroethane and concentration by ultrafiltration. A guanidine isothiocyanate-glass powder extraction system was utilized for sample lysis, RNase protection, and nucleic acid purification. Removal of PCR inhibitors and method sensitivity were quantified in shellfish (oysters and mussels) seeded with poliovirus. PCR sample tolerance exceeded 4 g for depurated shellfish; however, polluted field samples were more inhibitory. Virus recoveries of 31% for oyster extracts and 17% for mussel extracts and nucleic acid extraction reverse transcription-PCR detection limits down to 1 PFU yielded an overall sensitivity limit of < 10 PFU of poliovirus in up to 5 g of shellfish. PCR-positive results were obtained from a variety of polluted field samples naturally contaminated with human enteroviruses. The methods developed for virus recovery and PCR inhibitor removal should be equally applicable to detection of other RNA viruses such as hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus, and other small round-structured viruses in shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workformL?Werzberger, A. B. Mensch B. Kuter L. Brown J. Lewis R. Sitrin W. Miller D. Shouval B. Wiens G. Calandra J. Ryan P. Provost D. Nalin1992TA controlled trial of a formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in healthy children453-457N. Engl. J. Med..137BACKGROUND. Although inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is known to be well tolerated and immunogenic in healthy children and adults, its efficacy has yet to be established. METHODS. To evaluate the efficacy of the hepatitis A vaccine in protecting against clinically apparent disease, we conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in an Hasidic Jewish community in upstate New York that has had recurrent outbreaks of hepatitis A. At the beginning of a summer outbreak, 1037 healthy seronegative children 2 to 16 years of age were randomly assigned to receive one intramuscular injection of a highly purified, formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine or placebo. A case was defined by the presence of typical signs and symptoms, a diagnostic increase in IgM antibody to hepatitis A, and a serum concentration of alanine aminotransferase at least twice the upper limit of normal. Cases occurring greater than or equal to 50 days after the injection were included in the evaluation of efficacy. The children were followed for a mean of 103 days. RESULTS. A total of 519 children received vaccine, and 518 received placebo. The vaccine was well tolerated, with no serious adverse reactions. From day 50 after the injection, 25 cases of clinically apparent hepatitis A occurred in the placebo group and none in the vaccine group (P less than 0.001), confirming that the vaccine had 100 percent protective efficacy. Before day 21, seven cases occurred in the vaccine group and three cases in the placebo group. After that time, there were no cases among vaccine recipients and 34 cases among placebo recipients. CONCLUSIONS. The inactivated purified hepatitis A vaccine that we tested is well tolerated, and a single dose is highly protective against clinically apparent hepatitis A.ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workform?Christiansen, O.1957 A water-borne hepatitis epidemic539-542Ugeskrift for Laeger119ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workform?.Le Guyader, F. E. Dubois D. Menard M. Pommepuy1994Detection of hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, and enterovirus in naturally contaminated shellfish and sediment by reverse transcription-seminested PCR 3665-3671&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6010A reverse transcription-PCR method was developed to detect enterovirus (EV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and rotavirus (RV) RNAs in shellfish and sediment. The method was first tested under experimental conditions by using virus-spiked shellfish to evaluate assay sensitivity. The use of CC41 cellulose was found to be efficient for removing inhibitors of RV detection. For sediment samples, a Sephadex column was used to allow the detection of EV and HAV RNAs. The specificity of amplified products was controlled by hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled oligoprobes. The method was then applied to naturally contaminated shellfish and sediments. EV, HAV, and RV RNAs were detected in 22, 14, and 20% of the shellfish samples, respectively. No relationship between viral contamination and bacterial contamination was found. When viral RNAs (HAV or EV) were detected in sediments, they were also detected in shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?MWheeler, C. M. B. H. Robertson G. Van Nest D. Dina D. W. Bradley H. A. Fields1986IStructure of the hepatitis A virion: peptide mapping of the capsid region307-313Journal of Virology582Milligram amounts of highly purified hepatitis A virus (HAV) were obtained from persistently infected cell cultures. The HAV polypeptides were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred to nitrocellulose for detection by an enzyme-linked immunotransfer blot procedure. The HAV nucleotide-derived amino acid sequence was subjected to computer analysis to identify potential immunogenic regions within the HAV capsid polypeptides. Synthetic peptides corresponding to selected regions of each of the larger putative capsid polypeptides were coupled to keyhole limpet hemocyanin and used to immunize rabbits. Four of six anti-HAV peptide sera were strongly reactive. Antipeptide serum generated against amino acids (a.a.) 75 through 82 reacted with the 27,000-molecular-weight (MW) polypeptide; serum against a.a. 279 through 285 reacted with the 29,000-MW HAV polypeptide; and sera against a.a. 591 through 602 and 606 through 618 reacted with the 33,000-MW HAV polypeptide. These reactions enabled the identification of the gene order of the larger HAV P1 region gene products. Our data indicate the following molecular weights: HAV VP2 or 1B, 27,000; HAV VP3 or 1C, 29,000; and HAV VP1 or 1D, 33,000. ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?Anderson, C. E.19576An infectious hepatitis outbreak in a country district235-237New Zealand Medical Journal56ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?+Willcocks, M. M. J. G. Silcock M. J. Carter1993EDetection of Norwalk virus in the UK by the polymerase chain reaction7-12FEMS Microbiology Letters1121*We have developed a polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Norwalk virus using the published sequence of the virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase gene and have used this to clone and sequence this region of a virus from a UK outbreak. We have applied this method to a panel of UK Norwalk-like viruses using both Tet-z and Taq DNA polymerases and found that amplification produces a multiplicity of bands from stool samples. However, in combination with Southern blotting, Taq polymerase amplification detected virus in 13 of a panel of 30 clinical samples known to contain these viruses and also detected astroviruses in a mixed infection. Amplification using Tet-z DNA polymerase was less efficient (6/30) and detected predominantly viruses typed as UK type 2 by solid phase immune electron microscopy. ProCite Record Number: 910Journal Short Form workform?!Poskanzer, D. C. W. G. Beadenkopf1961HWaterborne infectious hepatitis epidemic from a chlorinated water supply745-751U. S. Public Health Report76ProCite Record Number: 910Journal Short Form workform?7Gouvea, V. N. Santos M. do Carmo Timenetsky M. K. Estes1994SIdentification of Norwalk virus in artificially seeded shellfish and selected foods177-187Journal of Virological Methods482-3E(Original) Gastroenteritis, Norwalk virus, viral RNA recovery, RT-PCRA rotavirus dsRNA purification protocol was adapted to extract Norwalk ssRNA from artificially contaminated shellfish, and a sensitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay for Norwalk virus was devised to identify an estimated 20-200 genomic copies. The technique includes deproteinization with guanidinium isothiocyanate, adsorption of RNA to hydroxyapatite, and sequential precipitation with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and ethanol. The protocol allows high recovery of viral RNA free of enzymatic inhibitors from oysters, clams, and a variety of food matrices. Norwalk virus sequences were copied and amplified by using primers selected from the polymerase gene. Digestion of the amplified products with restriction enzymes ensured the specificity of the test. This rapid and sensitive assay may significantly improve the prospect for the routine screening of the uncultivatable Norwalk virus in food stuffs.ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform?-Winokur, P. L. J. H. McLinden J. T. Stapleton1991The hepatitis A virus polyprotein expressed by a recombinant vaccinia virus undergoes proteolytic processing and assembly into viruslike particles 5029-5036Journal of Virology659OHepatitis A virus (HAV) contains a single-stranded, plus-sense RNA genome with a single long open reading frame encoding a polyprotein of approximately 250 kDa. Viral structural proteins are generated by posttranslational proteolytic processing of this polyprotein. We constructed recombinant vaccinia viruses which expressed the HAV polyprotein (rV-ORF) and the P1 structural region (rV-P1). rV-ORF-infected cell lysates demonstrated that the polyprotein was cleaved into immunoreactive 29- and 33-kDa proteins which comigrated with HAV capsid proteins VP0 and VP1. The rV-P1 construct produced a 90-kDa protein which showed no evidence of posttranslational processing. Solid-phase radioimmunoassays with human polyclonal anti-HAV sera and with murine or human neutralizing monoclonal anti-HAV antibodies recognized the rV-ORF-infected cell lysates. Sucrose density gradients of rV-ORF-infected cell lysates contained peaks of HAV antigen with sedimentation coefficients of approximately 70S and 15S, similar to those of HAV empty capsids and pentamers. Immune electron microscopy also demonstrated the presence of viruslike particles in rV-ORF-infected cell lysates. Thus, the HAV polyprotein expressed by a recombinant vaccinia virus demonstrated posttranslational processing into mature capsid proteins which assembled into antigenic viruslike particles. ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform? Jernelius, H.1958@An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in a manufacturing community109-115Nordisk Hygienisk Tidskrift39ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform?8Lucena, F. J. Lasobras D. McIntosh M. Forcadell J. Jofre1994Effect of distance from the polluting focus on relative concentrations of Bacteroides fragilis phages and coliphages in mussels 2272-2277&Applied and Environmental Microbiology607Concentrations of fecal bacteria, somatic and F-specific coliphages, and phages infecting Bacteroides fragilis in naturally occurring black mussels (Mytilus edulis) were determined. Mussels were collected over a 7-month period at four sampling sites with different levels of fecal pollution. Concentrations of both fecal bacteria and bacteriophages in mussel meat paralleled the concentration of fecal bacteria in the overlying waters. Mussels bioaccumulated efficiently, although with different efficiencies, all of the microorganisms studied. Ratios comparing the levels of microorganisms in mussels were determined. These ratios changed in mussels collected at the different sites. They suggest that bacteriophages infecting B. fragilis and somatic coliphages have the lowest decay rates among the microorganisms studied, with the exception of Clostridium perfringens. On the contrary, concentrations of F-specific coliphages showed a greater rate of decay than the other bacteriophages at sites more distant from the focus of contamination. Additionally, levels of enteroviruses were studied in a number of samples, and in these samples, the B. fragilis bacteriophages clearly outnumbered the enteroviruses. The results of this study indicate that, under the environmental conditions studied, the fate of phages infecting B. fragilis released into the marine environment resembles that of human viruses more than any other microorganism examined. ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?Ward, B. K. L. G. Irving1987<Virus survival on vegetables spray-irrigated with wastewater57-63Water Research211A method, developed to detect low concentrations of virus on vegetables, irrigated with wasteater, was investigated in the field. Celery, spinach, lettuce and tomato crops, grown at an experimental station near Melbourne, Victoria, were spray-irrigated with stored wastewater, which had been seeded with either poliovirus or adenovirus. At specified intervals after irrigation, vegetables were harvested, washed to remove virus and the washings concentrated into a small volume which was inoculated into cell cultures for virus isolation. the method demonstrated rapid inactivation, within 48 h, of poliovirus on crops and low level persistence of this virus for up to 13 days. Adenoivirus could not be detected on a lettuce crop as early as 24h after irrigation. On crops harvested immediately after irrigation and stored at 4 C in ahumid atmosphere in the dark, the method was able to demonstrate more gradual inactivation of poliovirus than under field conditions and virus persistence for up to 76 days. Since seeded virus concentrations were similar to those commonly detected in wastewater before storage, results indicate that this is a practical method for assessing viral contamination of vegetable crops spray irrigated with wastewater.ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?Randel, H. W. C. W. Bovee1962EInfectious hepatitis: a water-borne outbreak at an air base in France 1483-1500!American Journal of Public Health52ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?,Bosch, A. F. X. Abad R. Gajardo R. M. Pintó19947Should shellfish be purified before public consumption? 1024-1025Lancet3448928LetterProCite Record Number: 940Journal Short Form workformT?Warner, R. D. et al.1992,A large nontypical outbreak of Norwalk virus55International Food Safety News17uFull context: The US Air Force Academy experienced a point-source outbreak of gastroenteritis, originally believed to be caused by Salmonella. The overall attack rate was 48% among approximately 3000 cadets and staff. Food specific attack rate implicated chicken salad-the celery component had been exposed to non-portable water. On analysis, most aspects were consistent with the epidemiology of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. However, the clinical presentation was not typical of reported outbreaks - 105cadets required intravenous rehydration. Serum samples implicated Norwalk virus as the most probable cause of the outbreak.ProCite Record Number: 9406Journal Short Form workform (42) Outbreaks & Incidents?Wallace, E. C.1958CInfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak, apparently water-borne101-102Medical Journal of Australia1ProCite Record Number: 940Journal Short Form workform?Health and Welfare Canada1993PLaboratory reports of human viral and selected non-viral agents in Canada - 1992188-192"Canada Communicable Disease Report19-22 not availableProCite Record Number: 950Journal Short Form workform?Hilfenhaus, J. T. Nowak1994Inactivation of hepatitis A virus by pasteurization and elimination of picornaviruses during manufacture of factor VIII concentrate62-66 Vox Sanguinis671Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections have been reported among hemophiliacs who received factor VIII concentrates which had been purified by ion-exchange chromatography and treated by the solvent detergent (SD) method. Since the virus inactivation procedure of our manufacturing process is heat treatment of the stabilized, aqueous protein solution at 60 degrees C for 10 h (pasteurization), we investigated whether this method inactivated picornaviruses such as HAV and poliovirus type 1, which we routinely use as a test virus for non-enveloped viruses. HAV was substantially inactivated by pasteurization but the stabilizers used in the manufacturing process of the commercial products considerably delayed HAV inactivation. Residual infectious HAV was found even after 10 h heat treatment of the stabilized preparation. Thus HAV is more stable in the presence of stabilizers than poliovirus type 1. Furthermore, we studied stage by stage the elimination of poliovirus type 1 by the manufacturing procedure of these pasteurized factor VIII concentrates. Three other stages of the manufacturing process apart from pasteurization eliminated poliovirus by approximately three orders of magnitude each. Taking into account this efficient elimination of the picornavirus poliovirus and the substantial inactivation of HAV by pasteurization, we conclude that a high margin of safety exists for pasteurized factor VIII concentrates regarding HAV. This conclusion is supported by the fact that no HAV infection has been reported in hemophilia patients treated with pasteurized factor VIII concentrates. Furthermore, in a retrospective study, none of 95 patients subjected to a long-term treatment with pasteurized factor VIII concentrates had developed anti-HAV seroconversion as a result of this treatment. ProCite Record Number: 960Journal Short Form workform? Larkin, E. P.1981Food contaminants - viruses320-325Journal of Food protection444Viruses have been detected in a limited number of foods. Although methods used to examine these foods were usually restricted to detection of human enteroviruses, animal viruses were found in some meats, milk, and eggs; limitations in methodology may have caused other viruses present to go undetected. As the sensitivity of methods increases, studies are being undertaken to detect a greater variety of human intestinal viruses. data from these investigations should provide the information needed to determine the incidence and public health significance of food contamination by viruses. In areas where virus-contaminated foods may be expected, washing and heating foods to 70 C should provide reasonable protection against the inadvertent consumption of viruses.ProCite Record Number: 960'Journal Short Form workform (42) Review.?FWilcox Jr. , K. J. F. M. Davenport D. Coohon N. Papsdorf L. D. Johnson1961hAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis in a rural village attributable to widespread contamination of wells249-258American Journal of Hygiene74ProCite Record Number: 960Journal Short Form workform?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention2003`Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant --- Monaca, Pennsylvania, 2003 1155-1157Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rept.5247 November 28|7dChancellor, D. D. Tyagi, S. Bazaco, M. C. Bacvinskas, S. Chancellor, M. B. Dato, V. M. de Miguel, F.2006?Green onions: potential mechanism for hepatitis A contamination1468-72 J Food Prot696%Disease Outbreaks Food Contamination/*analysis *Food Microbiology Hepatitis A/*epidemiology/*virology *Hepatitis A virus/growth & development/isolation & purification/pathogenicity Humans Mexico/epidemiology Onions/*virology RNA, Viral/*analysis Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain ReactionJun#The largest documented foodborne hepatitis A outbreak in U.S. history occurred in November 2003. The source of that outbreak was green onions from a farm in Mexico. Two biomarkers were used to determine ways in which hepatitis A virus (HAV) can contaminate onions. Fluorescent microspheres (1.0 to 10 microm) and HAV vaccine were placed on the soil and the surfaces of pot-grown onions and in the liquid medium of hydroponically cultivated onions. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) was used to identify HAV RNA. Microspheres were found on the outside and inside of the pot-grown onions for up to 60 days. RT-PCR revealed HAV RNA from the vaccine in well-washed green onions. In the hydroponically grown onions, microspheres were found throughout the onion after only 1 day. RT-PCR also revealed HAV RNA inside the hydroponically grown onions. Both biomarkers support the hypothesis that HAV can contaminate the inside of the growing onion and can be taken up intracellularly through the roots. Once inside, the particles are impossible to remove by cleaning.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=16786877Chancellor, David D Tyagi, Shachi Bazaco, Michael C Bacvinskas, Sara Chancellor, Michael B Dato, Virginia M de Miguel, Fernando United States Journal of food protection J Food Prot. 2006 Jun;69(6):1468-72.0362-028X (Print)16786877iDepartment of Urology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.eng$?;Lambert, M. T. Patton T. Chudzio J. Machin P. Sankar-Mistry1991NAn outbreak of rotaviral gastroenteritis in a nursing home for senior citizens351-353Canada Journal of Public Health829-10 Not availableProCite Record Number: 970Journal Short Form workform?Patel, T. B. V. N. Rao1960RInfectious hepatitis outbreak in Bombay city: epidemiological investigation report29-37!Indian Journal of Medical Science14ProCite Record Number: 970Journal Short Form workform ?3Masár, I. J. Roda S. Palan M. Kossár A. Kristoffk19658An infectious hepatitis epidemic in a small town in 1964387-396>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology9ProCite Record Number: 980Journal Short Form workform ?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1994!New horizons: hepatitis A vaccine9-11ProCite Record Number: 980Journal Short Form workform (42) Hepatitis Surveillance Report No. 55. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention? Anonymous1994&Hepatitis A Vaccine: "Havrix Monodose"3ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health: Scotland Weekly Report2894/21ProCite Record Number: 990Journal Short Form workform?Petschow, B. W. R. D. Talbott1994Reduction in virus-neutralizing activity of a bovine colostrum immunoglobulin concentrate by gastric acid and digestive enzymes228-2357Journal of Pediatric and Gastroenterology and Nutrition192Bovine milk immunoglobulin concentrates have been proposed for inducing passive immunity against various enteric pathogens. In vitro digestion studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of gastrointestinal secretions on the virus-neutralizing activity of a concentrate prepared from the colostrum of cows that were immunized with rotavirus. The proteolytic activity of human gastric and duodenal fluid specimens was used to design a two-stage in vitro digestion model with commercial enzymes for estimating the individual impact of pepsin, gastric acid, and select pancreatic enzymes on antirotavirus activity in bovine milk immunoglobulin concentrates. The rotavirus-neutralizing titer of concentrate was decreased by incubation with pepsin at pH 2, a pool of pancreatic enzymes at pH 7.5, or sequential digestion with pepsin (pH 2) and pancreatic enzymes (from initial titer of 55,210 to 2,030, 19,500, and 320, respectively). Reduction in rotavirus-neutralizing titer after gastric-phase digestion was primarily due to acidic conditions and not to proteolytic cleavage by pepsin. Although both trypsin and carboxypeptidase caused significant proteolysis of concentrate during duodenal-phase digestion, only trypsin caused a significant reduction in rotavirus-neutralizing titer. The extent of digestion was the same for concentrate suspended in water or skim milk. The results demonstrate that the biological activity of bovine milk antibodies is reduced by exposure to acid and trypsin in vitro and suggest that neutralization of both gastric acid and pancreatic trypsin may enhance the effectiveness and economic feasibility of passive oral immunoprophylaxis with bovine milk immunoglobulins. ProCite Record Number: 1000Journal Short Form workform[?YMajeed, F. A. J. M. Stuart K. A. Cartwright R. Room J. R. Gilkes M. C. Smith B. E. Watson1992,An outbreak of hepatitis A in Gloucester, UK167-173Epidemiology and Infection1091NDuring an outbreak of hepatitis A that occurred in Gloucester, UK between September 1989 and January 1991, 162 clinical cases were identified through notifications and laboratory reports, a monthly attack rate of 1.05 per 10,000 residents. The highest attack rate was seen in 5-14-year-olds. There were significant correlations between hepatitis A attack rates in the electoral wards of Gloucester and with the Jarman UPA 8 scores for the wards and with overcrowding, unemployment, under 5-year-olds and ethnic minority. The use of human normal immune globulin prophylaxis (HNIG) for household contacts was unsuccessful in ending the outbreak, partly because only one third of cases reported a household contact with recent hepatitis A. Our experience does not support the use of HNIG in stopping community-wide outbreaks of hepatitis A. Two public health campaigns were mounted during the outbreak; both were followed by a fall in the number of cases. Greater priority should be given to the implementation and evaluation of public health campaigns in future community-wide outbreaks of hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 1000Journal Short Form workform?ZBile, K. A. Isse O. Mohamud P. Allebeck L. Nilsson H. Norder I. K. Mushahwar L. O. Magnius1994Contrasting roles of rivers and wells as sources of drinking water on attack and fatality rates in a hepatitis E epidemic in Somalia466-4741American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene514oIn early 1988, an increased incidence of acute hepatitis was observed in villages along the Shebeli River in the Lower Shebeli region of Somalia. This was followed by a large epidemic that lasted until late 1989. In a survey of 142 villages with a population of 245,312 individuals, 11,413 icteric cases were recorded, of which 346 died, corresponding to an attack rate and a case fatality rate of 4.6% and 3.0%, respectively. The etiologic role of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in this epidemic was proven by demonstrating anti-HEV in 128 of 145 sampled cases as a sign of recent infection with HEV. In three villages, where a special study protocol was implemented, the attack rate was found to increase significantly with age from 5% in the group 1-4 years of age to 13% in the group 5-15 years of age and to 20% for persons older than 15 years of age. Among cases 20-39 years of age, the female-to-male ratio was 1.5:1, which was a significant predominance of females. As in other hepatitis E outbreaks, there was a high fatality rate in pregnant females, estimated to be 13.8%. The epidemic peaked with the rise in the level of the river during rainfall, suggesting that the disease was waterborne. The attack rate was higher (6.0%) in villages supplied with river water, while fewer cases were recorded in those relying on wells or ponds for their water supply, 1.7% and 1.2%, respectively. ProCite Record Number: 1010Journal Short Form workform?Feder, J. W. R. Tolbert1983.The large-scale cultivation of mammalian cells36-43Scientific American2481Novel reactors have been designed for growing in culture large quantities of the fragile, complex cells that synthesize medically important proteins such as interferon and monoclonal antibodiesProCite Record Number: 1010Journal Short Form workformI? Payment, P. E. Franco G. S. Fout1994Incidence of Norwalk virus infections during a prospective epidemiological study of drinking water related gastrointestinal illness805-809 Canadian Journal of Microbiology4010To determine the seroprevalence of Norwalk virus and whether Norwalk virus contributed to an observed increase in illness in tap water drinkers participating in a prospective epidemiological study, sera collected during the study were examined for changes in Norwalk virus antibody titer, using a specific enzyme immunoassay. Antibodies to Norwalk virus were measured in sera collected in March, June and September 1988 and in June 1989, and antibodies were found in 79% of the individuals. Seroprevalence increased with age, being 55% (ages 9-19), 79% (20-39), 87% (40-49), 84% (50-59), and 100% (60 and older). Norwalk infections occurred in 33% of the individuals during the course of the study. The highest rate of infection (expressed as a monthly rate) was observed during the summer of 1988. These results confirm that a large number of infections owing to Norwalk viruses occur throughout the year. A previous seroconversion or a high serum titer were not always protective. Finally, there was no detectable difference in infection rate between consumers of tap water and consumers of water treated by reverse-osmosis units, suggesting that Norwalk virus infections were not responsible for the excess of gastrointestinal illness observed in tap water drinkers during this epidemiological study. ProCite Record Number: 1020Journal Short Form workformN?:Rubertone, M. V. R. F. DeFraites M. R. Krauss C. A. Brandt1993DAn outbreak of hepatitis A during a military field training exercise37-41Military Medicine1581SHepatitis A continues to pose a preventable threat to modern day military forces. We describe a food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A during a field training exercise resulting in 22 ill soldiers and over 300 lost work days. Among the population at risk, the secondary attack rate was 19.6%. faced with epidemic diseases occurrences, epidemiologic investigation of potential cases and aggressive use of post-exposure prophylaxis is recommended in a field setting. Although immune serum globulin is liely to reduce transmission, not all cases of acute hepatitis A will be prevented by this action. ProCite Record Number: 1020Journal Short Form workform?.Cook, S. M. R. I. Glass C. W. LeBaron M. S. Ho1990*Global seasonality of rotavirus infections171-177)Bulletin of the World Health Organization682Data from 34 studies of the etiology of childhood diarrhoea were compiled in order to investigate the seasonal patterns of rotavirus gastroenteritis and consider their implications for transmission of the virus. Rotavirus was detected in 11-71% of children with diarrhoea, and the median rate of detection (33%) was independent of the level of economic development or geographical region of the study area, as well as of the method of detection used. While rotavirus infections have been called a winter disease in the temperate zones, we found that their incidence peaked in winter primarily in the Americas and that peaks in the autumn or spring are common in other parts of the world. In the tropics, the seasonality of such infections is less distinct and within 10 degrees latitude (north or south) of the equator, eight of the ten locations exhibited no seasonal trend. Throughout most of the world, rotavirus is present all the year round, which suggests that low-level transmission could maintain the chain of infection. The virus is spread by the faecal-oral route but airborne or droplet transmission has also been postulated. The epidemiology of rotavirus--its seasonality in the cooler months, its universal spread in temperate and tropical zones in developed and less developed settings--more closely resembles that of childhood viruses that are spread by the respiratory route (such as measles) than that of common enteric pathogens that are spread predominantly by the faecal-oral route. ProCite Record Number: 1030Journal Short Form workform{? Nasser, A. M.19941Prevalence and fate of hepatitis A virus in water281-3238Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology244(Original) Review, hepatitis A virus, cultivation, waste-water, water, prevalence, survival, treatment, removal, immune electron-microscopy, a-virus, environmental surfaces, indicator organisms, cyto-pathology, serial passage, cell-cultures, free chlorine, waste-water, antigenHepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major waterborne disease agent with worldwide distribution. The main transmission route of HAV is direct person-to-person contact. However, hepatitis A (HA) outbreaks associated with the consumption and use of fecally contaminated water were reported from many countries. Studies on the environmental behavior of HAV were feasible only after developing techniques for its cultivation and enumeration in tissue culture. This study reviews data on the extent of HAV prevalence and persistence in the environment and water. HA is highly prevalent in low socioeconomic populations as determined by seroepidemiologic studies. HAV is excreted for long periods by infected individuals, but it is also shed by healthy persons. HAV has been detected in concentrated wastewater and natural waters. However, in most cases the natural waters were monitored for the presence of HAV after the occurrence of HA outbreak. HAV persists for months at temperatures below 10 degrees C and for at least 1 month at ambient temperature (20 to 25 degrees C). Physical, biological, and chemical factors that influence the survival of enteric viruses - such as temperature, pH, salt concentration, microbial activity, and humidity - have similar effects on HAV. Drinking water treatment processes such as coagulation, high rate filtration, and disinfection seem to be effective in removing HAV from water.ProCite Record Number: 1040Journal Short Form workform#?UHalliday M. L. L. Y. Kang T. K. Zhou M. D. Hu Q. C. Pan T. Y. Fu Y. S. Huang S. L. Hu1991XAn epidemic of hepatitis A attributable to the ingestion of raw clams in Shanghai, China852-859J. Infect. Dis.1645An epidemic of hepatitis A in 1988 in Shanghai had an overall attack rate of 4083/100,000 population (292,301 cases). The epidemic curve showed three peaks in January and February. A case-control study of 1208 matched pairs supported that clams were the vehicle for the virus (summary odds ratio, 9.47; P less than .001). Analysis of subsets who had eaten clams indicated that only 3.5% with hepatitis A had cooked their clams compared with 18.1% without hepatitis A, and those with the disease consumed more clams. A historical cohort study indicated that approximately 31.7% of the population had eaten clams one or more times between 9 December 1987 and 3 January 1988. The estimated attack rates in those who had and had not eaten clams were 11.93% and 0.52%, respectively (relative risk, 22.94; attributable risk, 11.41%). The three peaks in the consumption curve correlated with those in the epidemic curve. Hepatitis A virus was demonstrated in clams taken from the Shanghai markets and from the catching area.ProCite Record Number: 1040Journal Short Form workform ?0Farrah, S. C. Wallis P. T. Shaffer J. L. Melnick1976)Reconcentration of poliovirus from sewage653-658&Applied and Environmental Microbiology325Virus can be adsorbed from effluents of sewage treatment plants on large-surface membranes. Subsequent elution of virus requires large volumes, which in turn requires reconcentration of virus for assay. However, reconcentration of such viral eluates on small adsorbent surfaces is difficult because certain soluble sewage components are adsorbed along with the virus on the initial virus adsorbent and are removed along with the virus by the eluent. Upon acidification of the initial eluate to reconcentrate the virus on smaller membrane surfaces, flocs are formed that interfere with the reconcentration process. To circumvent this problem, the interfering sewage components can be removed by activated carbon and ion-exchange resins. The virus is then readily reconcentrated on small membranes. ProCite Record Number: 1050Journal Short Form workform?Black, E. K. G. R. Finch1994EDetection and occurrence of waterborne bacterial and viral pathogens292-298Water Environment Research664(Original) Polymerase chain-reaction, hepatitis-a virus, labeled oligonucleotide probe, long-term/Survival, escherichia-coli, drinking-water, cryptosporidium oocysts, environmental water, beta-glucuronidase, total coliformsProCite Record Number: 1060Journal Short Form workform?%Henderson, M. C. Wallis J. L. Melnick1976JConcentration and purification of enteroviruses by membrane chromatography689-693&Applied and Environmental Microbiology325A simple procedure for the concentration and partial purification of enteroviruses from tissue culture harvests is described. After removal of acid-precipitating components with a cationic detergent, the detergent and most membrane-coating components were removed by treatment with a cationic-exchange resin. The resin effluent was then acidified, and the virus was adsorbed to epoxy-fiberglass membranes. Virus was then eluted with pH 11.5 glycine-NaOH buffer. Since this eluate contains no orgcentrated simply by acidifying the eluate and passing it through a smaller membrane than that used for the first concentration. As high as 500-fold concentrations can be achieved, with a high efficiency of recovery. ProCite Record Number: 1060Journal Short Form workform=?1Tsai, Y. L. B. Tran L. R. Sangermano C. J. Palmer1994zDetection of poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus from sewage and ocean water by triplex reverse transcriptase PCR 2400-2407&Applied and Environmental Microbiology607A triplex reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) was developed to simultaneously detect poliovirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and rotavirus in sewage and ocean water. Sewage and ocean water samples seeded with the three different viruses were concentrated by ultrafiltration. The unseeded ocean water and sewage samples were concentrated by vortex flow filtration and/or ultrafiltration. Random hexamers and a rotavirus downstream primer were used to initiate reverse transcription. Three different sets of primers specific for poliovirus, HAV, and rotavirus cDNAs were mixed in the PCR mixture to amplify the target DNA. Three distinct amplified DNA products representing poliovirus, HAV, and rotavirus were identified by gel electrophoresis as 394-, 192-, and 278-bp sequences, respectively. Dot blot and Southern analyses were used to confirm the amplified products for each virus present in the environmental samples. Except for poliovirus, the sensitivity of triplex RT-PCR for the detection of rotavirus and HAV was found to be similar to that of monoplex RT-PCR, which uses only one set of primers to amplify a single type of virus. The triplex RT-PCR has greater advantages over monoplex RT-PCR for virus detection, namely, the rapid turnaround time and cost effectiveness. ProCite Record Number: 1070Journal Short Form workform?Henry, F. J. R. K. Bartholomew1990]Epidemiology and transmission of rotavirus infections and diarrhoea in St. Lucia, West Indies205-212Western Indian Medical Journal394To determine the epidemiology and risk factors of rotavirus infections in St. Lucia, 229 children in three valleys with varying levels of sanitation were studied for 2 years. A four-fold rise in complement fixation antibody to rotavirus antigen was used in paired samples as evidence of recent infection. Results showed that forty-eight per cent of infants experienced at least one infection during a two-year period, and 17% of children were reinfected. Infections occurred within the first months of life and peaked between 6 and 23 months of age. The peak infection coincided with the dry season in each age group. Children breast-feeding had fewer infections. Although crowding within the home was significantly associated with repeated infection, the incidence of infection was not affected by the degree of sanitation. Other studies in the region, using recently developed techniques, concur with these findings which advance our understanding of the epidemiological importance of rotavirus in St. Lucia. Although these studies provide insights into the risk factors for rotavirus infections, other studies are required to determine whether investments should be focused on improved sanitation or immunization or both. ProCite Record Number: 1070Journal Short Form workform?:Puig, M. J. Jofre F. Lucena A. Allard G. Wadell R. Girones1994ZDetection of adenoviruses and enteroviruses in polluted waters by nested PCR amplification 2963-2970&Applied and Environmental Microbiology608A procedure has been developed for the rapid detection of enteroviruses and adenoviruses in environmental samples. Several systems for virus concentration and extraction of nucleic acid were tested by adding adenovirus type 2 and poliovirus type 1 to different sewage samples. The most promising method for virus recovery involved the concentration of viruses by centrifugation and elution of the virus pellets by treatment with 0.25 N glycine buffer, pH 9.5. Nucleic acid extraction by adsorption of RNA and DNA to silica particles was the most efficient. One aliquot of the extracted nucleic acids was used for a nested two-step PCR, with specific primers for all adenoviruses; and another aliquot was used to synthesize cDNA for a nested two-step PCR with specific primers for further detection of seeded polioviruses or all enteroviruses in the river water and sewage samples. The specificity and sensitivity were evaluated, and 24 different enterovirus strains and the 47 human adenovirus serotypes were recognized by the primers used. The sensitivity was estimated to be between 1 and 10 virus particles for each of the species tested. Twenty-five samples of sewage and polluted river water were analyzed and showed a much higher number of positive isolates by nested PCR than by tissue culture analysis. The PCR-based detection of enteroviruses and adenoviruses shows good results as an indicator of possible viral contamination in environmental wastewater. ProCite Record Number: 1080Journal Short Form workform?$Patterson, T. P. Hutchings S. Palmer1993tOutbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post-symptomatic caterer157-162Epidemiology and Infection1111In an outbreak of small round structured virus (SRSV) gastroenteritis at an international AIDS conference 67 people were ill with diarrhoea or vomiting, one requiring admission to hospital. Epidemiological investigations demonstrated that the vehicle of infection was food prepared by a foodhandler who was recovering from a mild gastrointestinal illness. The food most strongly associated with illness, coronation chicken, was prepared by the food handler on the second day after symptoms ceased. The investigation confirms the view that foodhandlers may contaminate food with SRSVs after cessation of symptoms and should remain off work until at least 48 h after recovery. ProCite Record Number: 1080Journal Short Form workformy?&Straub, T. M. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1994Detection of naturally occurring enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus in undigested and anaerobically digested sludge using the polymerase chain reaction.884-888 Canadian Journal of Microbiology4010,Four undigested and four anaerobically digested sewage sludge samples were analyzed for enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus using seminested and double polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. For enteroviruses, all eight samples were positive when detection was by seminested PCR. Using cell culture all samples except two digested sludge samples were positive. For hepatitis A virus, seven out of eight samples were positive by PCR detection. In all samples, PCR inhibitory substances were removed by passage through Sephadex G-50 and Chelex 100 columns. Overall the PCR methodology was highly successful in identifying the presence of both viruses; however, with this methodology, there was no indication as to whether enteroviruses or hepatitis A viruses not confirmed in cell culture were infectious. ProCite Record Number: 1090Journal Short Form workformc?Monceyron, C. B. Grinde1994iDetection of hepatitis A virus in clinical and environmental samples by immunomagnetic separation and PCR157-166Journal of Virological Methods462XMagnetic beads coated with antibodies against surface epitopes of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) captured efficiently viral particles from various types of samples. Contaminating substances, including particulate material, were removed by using a magnet to retain the beads during the washing procedure. A sensitive reverse transcriptase/nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was developed to confirm the presence of viral particles on the beads. The above technique was shown to be useful for the detection of a laboratory strain of HAV added to polluted river water, sea water and fecal extracts. ProCite Record Number: 1100Journal Short Form workform? Kandela, P.1993Egypt: combating liver disease1207Lancet3418854 not availableProCite Record Number: 1100Journal Short Form workform\?3Soares, A. C. T. M. Straub I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1994cEffect of anaerobic digestion on the occurrence of enteroviruses and Giardia cysts in sewage sludge 1887-1897ZJournal of Environmental Science and Health Part A - Environmental Science and Engineering299ProCite Record Number: 1110Journal Short Form workform?World Health Organization1988"Outbreak of hepatitis A - Shanghai91-92Weekly Epidemiological Record13 not availableProCite Record Number: 1110Journal Short Form workform2?[Garin, D. F. Fuchs J. M. Crance Y. Rouby J. C. Chapalain D. Lamarque A. M. Gounot M. Aymard1994Exposure to enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus among divers in environmental waters in France, first biological and serological survey of a controlled cohort541-549Epidemiology and Infection1133An epidemiological study of hepatitis A and enteroviruses was conducted in a military diving training school, by evaluating the viral contamination of water using an ultrafiltration concentration technique, and assessing seroconversion and the presence of virus in stool specimens obtained from 109 divers and 48 controls. Three of 29 water specimens were positive for enterovirus by cell culture and 9 by molecular hybridization. There was little or no risk of virus infection during the training course (49 h exposure) because there was no significant difference between divers and controls for both viral isolation and seroconversion. However, a higher percentage of coxsackievirus B4 and B5 seropositive divers suggests that these were more exposed during previous water training. No hepatitis A virus (HAV) detection and no seroconversion to HAV was observed. The rate of HAV seropositive subjects was 17% in this 24.5-year-old population. ProCite Record Number: 1120Journal Short Form workform??Pfirrmann, A. G. vanden Bossche1994cOccurrence and isolation of airborne human enteroviruses from waste disposal and utilization plants38-51*Zentralblatt Fur Hygiene und Umweltmedizin1961'Aerosols from waste treatment plants were examined with regard to the presence of airborne viruses. For the purpose of a comparative evaluation, two different collecting devices consisting of an electroprecipitator and a special-impinger apparatus were used for extraction and collection of viruses from air samples. The collected suspensions were concentrated and fractionated by means of hydroextraction in combination with a differential centrifugation procedure. After solubilisation of the sedimented material with the anionic detergent, sodium-dodecylsulfate, and following ultrasonic treatment, viral infectivity could be demonstrated in 12 out of 36 examined specimens, after inoculation on BGM cells. The highest virus isolation rates were obtained with the electroprecipitator. Based on the results of investigations of biological, physicochemical as well as antigenic characteristics, the isolated strains revealed to belong to the family of Picornaviridae. According to the results of additional characterization assays, the isolates were identified as Coxsackie-B and ECHO-viruses. The linkage between the occurrence of these viruses and a possible risk of infection for humans remains to be elucidated by further epidemiological studies. However, the results of the present work indicate that, besides of an increased dust and germ concentration in such facilities, there is substantial evidence of increased viral contamination as well. Enteroviruses are generally considered as indicator viruses revealing the presence of viral contaminants in tap water and sewage. As human enteroviruses can be regularly isolated from such aerosols, the detection of these viruses in air samples may also be an appropriate criterion to estimate the amount to which virus concentrations may build up within waste treatment plants. ProCite Record Number: 1130Journal Short Form workformQ?Powelson, D. K. C. P. Gerba1994^Virus removal from sewage effluents during saturated and unsaturated flow through soil columns 2175-2181Water Research2810(Original) Reclamation of water, sewage, effluent, virus, poliovirus, bacteriophage, ms2, prd1,/removal, retardation, soil columns, transport, adsorption, transportRecharge of sewage effluents may lead to contamination of groundwater with viruses. The goal of this research was to quantify virus removal in representative subsurface transport conditions. Soil column and batch studies were conducted to evaluate how virus type, effluent type and water saturation affect virus adsorption and removal. Three viruses were used: MS2 and PRD1 bacteriophages and poliovirus type 1. In the first column study, secondary- or tertiary-treated sewage containing the viruses percolated through coarse-sand columns under unsaturated conditions. In the second column study, the viruses suspended in secondary-treated sewage percolated through the columns under saturated or unsaturated conditions. A batch adsorption study was conducted to determine equilibrium adsorption of these viruses to the sand. Effluent type had no significant effect on first-order virus removal coefficients or retardation of virus transport. Virus ''removal'' was considered to be inactivation or irreversible adsorption. Unsaturated conditions resulted in an average removal coefficient (mu(s) = 0.31 h(-1)) more than three times greater than saturated conditions (mu(s) = 0.095 h(-1)), a significant difference at the 0.01 level. Poliovirus had a greater retardation coefficient (R = 5.2) than the bacteriophages (MS2, R = 1.4; and PRD1, R = 2.2), a significant difference at the 0.001 level. Column retardations of virus transport were only 0.8-8.0% of that predicted by adsorption coefficients determined from the batch studies. Equations developed in this paper may aid in estimating virus removal during recharge of effluents if the water residence times in ponds, the vadose zone and the aquifer are known.ProCite Record Number: 1140Journal Short Form workform?Marsh, P. E. M. H. Wellington1994Phage-host interactions in soil99-107FEMS Microbiology Ecology151-2(Original) Phage ecology, soil streptomycetes, phage-host interaction, lysogeny, pseudomonas-aeruginosa, aquatic environments, escherichia-coli, bacteriophage, viruses, transduction, abundance, lysogeny, biology, ecology,Phages are abundant and ubiquitous in nature, and are therefore important components of microbial communities. They can impact on host populations in several ways, including predation and alteration of host phenotype by genetic interactions. The dynamic survival of phage populations in soil requires infective interactions with host populations which must be undergoing growth. Hence survival is limited by the activity of soil bacteria, and phage populations must adopt strategies to overcome periods of inactivity. One of the most effective strategies is the lysogenic cycle of temperate phages. It is argued here that lysogeny in soil has a distinct advantage over virulence for phage and host survival, as opposed to aquatic ecosystems where virulence seems a more successful strategy for phage populations.ProCite Record Number: 1150Journal Short Form workform^?FHuber, M. S. C. P. Gerba M. Abbaszadegan J. A. Robinson S. M. Bradford1994HStudy of persistence of enteric viruses in landfilled disposable diapers 1767-1772$Environmental Science and Technology289uHepatitis-a virus, molecular-cloning, nucleic-acid, water, cDNA, DNA, hybridization,/rotaviruses, community, survivalDisposable diapers are one of many possible sources of infectious enteric viruses that are disposed of in landfills. A total of 218 disposable diapers were collected from 7 sites and 10 depths at three landfills. Of this total, 110 diapers were selected to be processed based on fecal content using a 1.5% beef extract elution, organic flocculation-concentration method to recover viruses. The concentrated samples were assayed on Buffalo Green Monkey (BGM) kidney cell cultures for the detection of enteroviruses and with cDNA probes specific for poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus. Enteroviruses were not detected in any sample assayed using cell culture techniques. Three samples were positive using nucleic acid probes for poliovirus while negative for rotavirus and hepatitis A. These results suggest that, although poliovirus RNA was present in some diapers, the viruses were not viable by cell culture assays after 2 years or longer in a landfill. ProCite Record Number: 1160Journal Short Form workformb?"Birkenmeyer, L. G. I. K. Mushahwar1994IDetection of hepatitis A, B, and D virus by the polymerase chain reaction101-112Journal of Virological Methods492^HAV primer; HAV probe; HBV primer; HBV probe; HDV primer; HDV probe; Polymerase chain reaction Mini-ReviewProCite Record Number: 1170Journal Short Form workformm?PApaire-Marchais, V. V. Ferre-Aubineau F. Colonna F. Dubois A. Ponge S. Billaudel1994dDevelopment of RT-semi-nested PCR for detection of hepatitis A virus in stool in epidemic conditions117-124Molecular and Cellular Probes820The purpose of this study was to determine the efficiency of semi-nested PCR in detecting hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA. During a 2-year period (1990-1991), HAV RNA was searched for in shellfish from the French Brittany coasts using cRNA and vRNA probes. In January 1992, at the time of a hepatitis A outbreak, 28 stool samples were collected from infected patients (18 adults, 10 children) with anti-HAV IgM. Four samples from subjects with negative HAV serology were used as negative controls. Nucleic acid amplification (reverse-transcription-semi-nested PCR) was performed to detect HAV in stool. HAV RNA was purified by phenol-chloroform extraction and converted to cDNA using reverse transcriptase (Mu-MLV). After amplification, PCR products were visualized on an ethidium-bromide-stained gel and confirmed by hybridization with a specific digoxigenin-labelled oligoprobe. Samples were also studied by molecular hybridization with cRNA and vRNA probes. After onset of the illness, HAV RNA was detected over a longer time period by semi-nested PCR (16/28) than by hybridization (0/28). Even though biological diagnosis of hepatitis A will continue to rely on the detection of anti-HAV IgM, PCR should be useful in certain clinical cases (diagnosis of relapse) and for epidemiological and environmental monitoring of viruses. ProCite Record Number: 1180Journal Short Form workformt?&Goswami, B. B. W. H. Koch T. A. Cebula1994RCompetitor template RNA for detection and quantitation of hepatitis A virus by PCR114-115, 118-121 BioTechniques161yPCR was used to introduce a 63-bp deletion into the putative RNA replicase coding sequence of hepatitis A virus. RNA was synthesized in vitro from the deletion mutant cloned into a transcription vector. Upon amplification by PCR, cDNA made from the competitor RNA generated an amplified fragment that could be easily distinguished from the product generated from wild-type hepatitis A virus genomic RNA by gel electrophoresis, when the same primers were used, without further manipulation. The competitor RNA was used as a positive control in PCR-based detection of very low copy numbers of hepatitis A virus genomic RNA in the presence of unrelated hard-shell clam RNA. When the competitor RNA was used for competitive PCR to quantitate wild-type RNA, the presence of one template at a 10-fold to 100-fold higher level almost completely inhibited product formation from the underrepresented template. The competitor RNA should be useful as a control for reverse transcription and PCRs to determine hepatitis A virus genome RNA when accidental contamination of test samples by a wild-type positive control template would compromise the results. ProCite Record Number: 1190Journal Short Form workform *?>Whetter, L. E. S. P. Day O. Elroystein E. A. Brown S. M. Lemon1994Low efficiency of the 5' nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus RNA in directing cap-independent translation in permissive monkey kidney cells 5253-5263Journal of Virology688 To characterize in vivo the translational control elements present in the 5' nontranslated region (5'NTR) of hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA, we created an HAV-permissive monkey kidney cell line (BT7-H) that stably expresses T7 RNA polymerase and carries out cytoplasmic transcription of uncapped RNA from transfected DNA containing the T7 promoter. The presence of an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) within the 5'NTR of HAV was confirmed by using BT7-H cells transcribing bicistronic RNAs in which the 5'NTR was placed within the intercistronic space, controlling translation of a downstream reporter protein (bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase). However, translation directed by the 5'NTR in these bicistronic transcripts and in monocistronic T7 transcripts in which the HAV 5'NTR was placed upstream of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase coding sequence was very inefficient compared with the translation of monocistronic transcripts containing either the IRES of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus or a short nonpicornavirus 5' nontranslated leader sequence. A large deletion within the HAV IRES (delta 355-532) eliminated IRES activity in bicistronic transcripts. In contrast, larger deletions within the IRES in monocistronic transcripts (delta 1-354, delta 1-532, delta 1-633, and delta 158-633) resulted in 4- to 14-fold increases in translation. In the latter case, this was most probably due to a shift from IRES-directed translation to translation initiation by 5'-end-dependent scanning. Translation of RNAs containing either the EMC virus IRES or the nonpicornavirus leader was significantly enhanced by cotransfection of the reporter constructs with pEP2A, which directs transcription of RNA containing the EMC virus IRES fused to the poliovirus 2Apro coding region. This 2Apro enhancement of cap-independent translation suggests a greater availability of limiting cellular translation factors following 2Apro-mediated cleavage of the p220 subunit of the eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-4F and subsequent shutdown of 5' cap-dependent translation. In contrast, pEP2A cotransfection resulted in severe inhibition of translation directed by the HAV IRES in either monocistronic or bicistronic transcripts. This inhibition was due to competition from the EMC virus IRES present in pEP-2A transcripts, as well as the expression of proteolytically active 2Apro. 2Apro-mediated suppression of HAV translation was not seen with transcripts containing large deletions in the HAV IRES (delta 158-633, delta 1-532, or delta 1-633). These data suggest that the HAV IRES may have a unique requirement for intact p220 or that it may be dependent on active expression of another cellular translation factor which is normally present in severely limiting quantities. ProCite Record Number: 1200Journal Short Form workformz?Yap, K. L. S. K. Lam.1994Infectivity titration of the fast-replicating and cytopathic hepatitis A virus strain HM175A.2 by an in situ enzyme immunoassay217-226Journal of Virological Methods471-2YA simple, rapid and objective infectivity assay based on an in situ enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was developed for the fast-growing and cytopathic cell culture-adapted hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain HM175A.2. Infectivity titration by EIA correlated well with titration by cytopathic effects. The reliability of this assay was demonstrated by close agreement in virus infectivity titers among different assays of the same virus aliquot and between assays of different virus aliquots. HAV infected cell cultures after fixation could be stored for up to 1 week before testing without decline in virus titer. ProCite Record Number: 1210Journal Short Form workform/?3Bishop, N. E. D. L. Hugo S.V. Borovec D.A. Anderson1994GRapid and efficient purification of hepatitis A virus from cell culture203-216Journal of Virological Methods471-2(Hepatitis A virus (HAV) characteristically remains strongly cell-associated when grown in culture, with only small yields in the culture supernatant. Cell factories (6000 cm2) of BS-C-1 cells infected with the cytopathic HM175A.Z strain of HAV for 3, 4 or 7 days were harvested using trypsin to disperse the infected cell monolayer, and cells were collected by low speed centrifugation. More than 70% of the yield of virus and viral antigen can thus be obtained in the packed cell pellet. Packed cell pellets were resuspended in 5 volumes of isotonic buffer and cell membranes lysed by the addition of a non-ionic detergent. After removal of nuclei by centrifugation, ionic detergent was added to the clarified cytoplasmic extract. Under these conditions, HAV particles (virions and empty capsids) are the only particulate material remaining in the sample, and were recovered in a single ultracentrifugation step through discontinuous sucrose/glycerol density gradients. In one day, this method yields viral antigen with minimal cellular contaminants, in a concentrated volume suitable for subsequent biochemical, vaccine or diagnostic uses. The yield of viral antigen over numerous batches varied from 200 to 1600 vaccine-equivalent doses per cell factory, with a titre of up to 1 x 10(10) infectious particles per ml. ProCite Record Number: 1220Journal Short Form workform?=Buisson, Y. P. Coursaget R. Bercion D. Anne T. Debord R. Roue1994?Hepatitis E virus infection in soldiers sent to endemic regions 1165-1166Lancet3448930LetterProCite Record Number: 1240Journal Short Form workform?uPujol, F. H. M. O. Favorov T. Marcano J. A. Este M. Magris F. Liprandi Y. E. Khudyakov N. S. Khyudyakova H. A. Fields1994aPrevalence of antibodies against Hepatitis E Virus among urban and rural populations in Venezuela234-236Journal of Medical Virology4234Antibodies against hepatitis E virus (HEV) were detected in sera by a synthetic peptide-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from different populations in Venezuela. Antibodies against HEV were found in 1.6% (3/184) of urban pregnant woman (Caracas), in 3.9% (8/204) of rural populations (San Camilo, Edo Apure), and in 5.4% (12/223) of rural Amerindians (Padamo, Edo Amazonas). Positivity was confirmed by a neutralization EIA based on the use of competing soluble free peptides. The prevalence of antibodies in the Amerindian group was significantly higher than in urban pregnant women. No relation was found between age and HEV prevalence in rural populations. Three of 21 positive sera were also weakly positive by Western blot for IgM antibodies. This result, together with the low optical density values observed by EIA, suggested that the presence of antibodies in these sera reflects past infections. Based on these results, Venezuela does not seem to be highly endemic for hepatitis E. This is the first report of serological evidence of infection by HEV in South America. ProCite Record Number: 1250Journal Short Form workform?CGraham, D. Y. X. Jiang T. Tanaka A.R. Opekun H.P. Madore M.K. Estes1994MNorwalk virus infection of volunteers: New insights based on improved assays34-43Journal of Infectious Diseases1701Norwalk virus infection is a common cause of gastroenteritis in humans. The clinical features and virologic and immunologic responses following oral administration of Norwalk virus to 50 volunteers were monitored. New ELISAs using recombinant virus particles as the antigen source were used to assess the pattern of virus shedding and the specific immune responses. Forty-one subjects (82%) became infected; 68% were symptomatic and 32% were asymptomatic. The proportion of subjects infected was similar for those with and without preexisting antibody (82% vs. 60%; P > .2). The magnitude of seroconversion was highest in subjects who had vomiting. The peak of viral shedding was between 25 and 72 h, and virus first appeared in stool at 15 h. Specimens collected 7 days after inoculation remained positive. These results show a higher infection rate, more subclinical infections, and longer virus excretion following Norwalk virus inoculation than previously recognized. ProCite Record Number: 1260Journal Short Form workform:?FGray, J. J. C. Cunliffe J. Ball D.Y. Graham U. Desselberger M.K. Estes1994Detection of immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG Norwalk virus-specific antibodies by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsid antigen in adult volunteers challenged with Norwalk virus 3059-3063 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3212yPre- and postexposure sera collected from 17 adult volunteers challenged with Norwalk virus as described previously (D. Y. Graham, X. Jiang, T. Tanaka, A. Opekun, P. Madore, and M. K. Estes, J. Infect. Dis. 170:34-43, 1994) were examined for Norwalk virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with recombinant Norwalk virus antigen bound to the solid phase. Sixteen of the 17 volunteers had evidence of past infection, all presenting with preexisting IgG antibody of high avidity; only one volunteer had no evidence of previous infection. Virus infection was detected in 14 of the 16 volunteers with evidence of past infection, and 9 of the infected volunteers had symptomatic illness. A significant rise in both virus-specific IgA and IgG titers was detected after challenge in all of the volunteers who became ill. Five of the asymptomatic volunteers who were infected had rising titers of virus-specific IgG, but only two of the five had a concomitant rise in their virus-specific IgA antibody titers. Antibody rises were detectable in eight of nine ill volunteers 8 to 11 days after challenge but in the asymptomatic volunteers only after more than 15 days had elapsed. Virus-specific IgM was detected after challenge in all 14 infected volunteers. Between symptomatic and asymptomatic volunteers there were no significant differences in titers of virus-specific IgG and IgA in serum before challenge; however, there were significantly higher titers in symptomatic volunteers between 8 and > 90 days after challenge for virus-specific IgG and 8 and 24 days after challenge for virus-specific IgA. ProCite Record Number: 1270Journal Short Form workform~?:Lew, J. F. A. Z. Kapikian X. Jiang M. K. Estes K. Y. Green1994Molecular characterization and expression of the capsid protein of a Norwalk-like virus recovered from a desert shield troop with gastroenteritis319-325Virology2001=Norwalk virus (NV) infection was recently found to be associated with gastroenteritis in U.S. military troops stationed in Saudi Arabia during the 1990 Desert Shield Operation. We identified a Norwalk-like virus in the stools of two military personnel with gastroenteritis by ELISA and IEM. By RT-PCR and sequence analysis, the nucleotide sequence of part of the polymerase region of each of these two "Desert Shield" strains (DSV275 and DSV395) was found to be 73% identical to the corresponding region of NV. In addition, one of the strains (DSV395), which underwent sequence analysis of approximately 2900 consecutive bases, had a genomic organization characteristic of the Caliciviridae. Comparison of the DSV395 amino acid sequence of the capsid region with that of three other viruses in the Norwalk group (Norwalk, Southampton, and Toronto viruses) showed amino acid identity of 47-68%. Consensus sequence analysis of these capsid proteins identified two regions of conserved amino acids that flanked an area of variable amino acids. In addition, the proteins corresponding to the capsid regions of DSV395 and NV were expressed in an in vitro translation system. Immunoprecipitation studies using the expressed capsid proteins and paired DSV395 or NV infection sera indicated the presence of shared antigenic sites between the capsid proteins of DSV395 and NV. However, hyperimmune sera specific for the self-assembled recombinant NV capsid protein did not react with DSV stool antigen in an ELISA, suggesting that there may also be unique antigenic sites not shared between DSV395 and NV. ProCite Record Number: 1280Journal Short Form workform)?2Lew, J. F. A. Z. Kapikian J. Valdesuso K. Y. Green1994Molecular characterization of Hawaii virus and other Norwalk-like viruses: evidence for genetic polymorphism among human caliciviruses535-542Journal of Infectious Diseases1703Hawaii virus (HV), from a 1971 family outbreak of gastroenteritis, is serotypically distinct from Norwalk virus (NV), recently identified as a human calicivirus by molecular analysis. About 2600 consecutive nucleotides of the HV genome (including those encoding the viral capsid protein) and part of the polymerase region of three other viruses (MDV1, MDV6 and SV7) were sequenced. Comparison of the amino acid sequence of the capsid protein of HV with NV and other human caliciviruses (Toronto virus [TV24], Desert Shield virus [DSV395], and Southampton virus [SHV]) demonstrated the existence of two major genetic groups (genogroups) typified by HV and NV. HV had 76% identity with TV24 and 48% identity with NV, DSV395, or SHV. In addition, comparison of part of the polymerase protein of HV with other human caliciviruses also showed that there were these two genogroups. The large genetic diversity between the capsid sequence of HV and NV is consistent with their serotypic distinctiveness. ProCite Record Number: 1310Journal Short Form workform??pWang, J. X. X. Jiang H. P. Madore J. Gray U. Desselberger T. Ando Y. Seto I. Oishi J. F. Lew K.Y. Green M. Estes1994PSequence diversity of small, round-structured viruses in the Norwalk virus group 5982-5990Journal of Virology689ProCite Record Number: 1320Journal Short Form workformk?CCromeans, T. O. V. Nainan H. A. Fields M. O. Favorov H. S. Margolis1994Hepatitis A and E Viruses1-56TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi27Hui, Y. H. J. R. Gorham K. D. Murrell, D. O. Cliver Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1330Book Long Form workform? Cliver, D. O.1994)Viral foodborne disease agents of concern176-178Journal of Food Protection572Viruses transmitted to humans via foods generally emanate from the human intestines. In the United States, Norwalk virus ranked #5, hepatitis A virus #6, and ''other viruses'' (principally rotavirus) #10 among the top 10 causes of foodborne disease during 1983-1987. Molluscs are the most frequently reported vehicles, but any food handled by humans may transmit human enteric viruses. Some fruit and vegetable vehicles may have been contaminated in the field before or during harvesting. Viruses in foods may be inactivated before the food is eaten, and thus, not cause infection. Increasingly sensitive detection methods, largely based on ''molecular'' techniques, are becoming available for these viruses but are not applicable to monitoring foods on a routine basis.ProCite Record Number: 1330Journal Short Form workformi? Appleton, H.1994KNorwalk Virus and the Small Round Viruses Causing Foodborne Gastroenteritis57-79TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1350Book Long Form workformE?-Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Ansari1994 Rotavirus81-111TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi9Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1360Book Long Form workform9?Grešiková, M.1994Tickborne encephalitis113-135TFoodborne disease handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases caused by viruses, parasites, and fungi235Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1370Book Long Form workform?? Cliver, D. O.1994Other Foodborne Viral Diseases137-143TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1380Book Long Form workformf?Matsui, S. M. H. B. Greenberg19945Medical Management of Foodborne Viral Gastroenteritis145-158TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1390Book Long Form workformB? Cliver, D. O.1994!Epidemiology of Foodborne Viruses159-175TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1400Book Long Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1984]A broad-spectrum enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of human enteric viruses87-98J. Virol. Methods81-2An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test has been devised for detection of a broad spectrum of human enteric viruses, based on the use of poly-L-lysine as a nonspecific adhesive to hold the virus particles in the test wells and of pooled human immune serum globulin to mark the virus for detection with commercial goat anti-human IgG antibody conjugated with horseradish peroxidase. Detection of five human enteroviruses and a reovirus at levels of 10 most probable number of cytopathogenic units (MPNCU) to 10 PFU per well was achieved, whereas no reaction was seen with two porcine enteroviruses. When two virus types are present in a sample, the ELISA reactions augment each other.ProCite Record Number: 1400Journal Short Form workform9?Herrmann, J. E.1994Laboratory Methodology177-197TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1410Book Long Form workform?Cliver, D. O. J. Grindrod1969)Surveillance methods for viruses in foods421-425J. Milk Food Technol.3211 not availableProCite Record Number: 1450Journal Short Form workform?Tartera, C. J. Jofre1987LBacteriophages active against Bacteroides fragilis in sewage-polluted waters 1632-1637&Applied and Environmental Microbiology537Twelve strains of different Bacteroides species were tested for their efficiency of detection of bacteriophages from sewage. The host range of several isolated phages was investigated. The results indicated that there was a high degree of strain specificity. Then, by using Bacteroides fragilis HSP 40 as the host, which proved to be the most efficient for the detection of phages, feces from humans and several animal species and raw sewage, river water, water from lagoons, seawater, groundwater, and sediments were tested for the presence of bacteriophages that were active against B. fragilis HSP 40. Phages were detected in feces of 10% of the human fecal samples tested and was never detected in feces of the other animal species studied. Moreover, bacteriophages were always recovered from sewage and sewage-polluted samples of waters and sediments, but not from nonpolluted samples. The titers recovered were dependent on the degree of pollution in analyzed waters and sediments. ProCite Record Number: 1510Journal Short Form workform? Schell, W.19898Foodborne and waterborne disease surveillance, 1978-19888-11Wisconsin Epidemiology Bulletin112ProCite Record Number: 1600Journal Short Form workform?Gordon, S. M. L. S. Oshiro W. R. Jarvis D. Donenfeld M. S. Ho F. Taylor H. B. Greenberg R. Glass H. P. Madore R. Dolin O. Tablan1990nFoodborne Snow Mountain agent gastroenteritis with secondary person-to-person spread in a retirement community702-710!American Journal of Epidemiology1314xA variety of small round-structured viruses are being recognized with increasing frequency as a cause of gastroenteritis in the community, but have rarely been reported to cause outbreaks in hospitals or extended-care facilities. From March 20 through April 15, 1988, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred in a retirement facility in the San Francisco Bay area. Illness was characterized by diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting; two residents died. Attack rates were 46% (155 of 336) in residents and 37% (28 of 75) in employees. During the initial outbreak period, illness among residents was associated with two shrimp meals served in the facility dining hall (odds ratio = 6.7). Person-to-person transmission probably occurred: The risk of becoming ill one or two days after a roommate became ill was significantly greater than that of becoming ill at other times during the outbreak (risk ratio = 6.5). Microbiologic examinations for bacterial and parasitic enteric pathogens were negative; however, 27-nm viral particles were detected by immune electron microscopy and by blocking enzyme immunoassay to Snow Mountain agent in stools obtained at the onset of illness from one of six ill residents. Seroconversion (greater than fourfold antibody rise) to Snow Mountain agent was detected in acute- and convalescent-phase serum specimens from five of six ill residents as measured by enzyme immunoassay, but not for Norwalk agent as measured by radioimmunoassay. This report of an outbreak of Snow Mountain agent gastroenteritis in an extended-care facility documents that these difficult-to-identify 27-nm viruses can cause outbreaks in inpatient settings. ProCite Record Number: 1610Journal Short Form workform?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1990CFoodborne hepatitis A - Alaska, Florida, North Carolina, Washington228-232%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report3914ProCite Record Number: 1620Journal Short Form workform?/Paton, J. H. J. A. Sorell M. K. Wall E. O. Caul1990]Large outbreak of foodborne Norwalk-type viral gastroenteritis in a district general hospital3-4#Communicable Disease Report, London9015ProCite Record Number: 1630Journal Short Form workform?2Sharp, J. C. M. P. W. Collier G. I. Forbes C. Dunn19903Surveillance of foodborne disease in Scotland, 19887,Communicable Disease Weekly Report, Scotland906ProCite Record Number: 1640Journal Short Form workform? Brydone, T. J. J. Adams G. Smith1990+Beaters on the run -the pheasant's revenge?6-9,Communicable Disease Weekly Report, Scotland9043ProCite Record Number: 1650Journal Short Form workform/?dMele, A. M. G. Rastelli O. N. Gill D. Di Bisceglie F. Rosmini G. Pardelli C. Valtriani P. Patriarchi1990Recurrent epidemic hepatitis A associated with consumption of raw shellfish, probably controlled through public health measures540-546!Americian Journal of Epidemiology1303L(Original) Food contamination, hepatitis A, retrospective studies, shellfishmBetween April 1984 and January 1985, in the Italian seaport of Livorno, the annual incidence of serologically confirmed acute hepatitis A doubled to 46 per 100,000 population. The exposure histories of each of 75 jaundiced subjects with serologically confirmed hepatitis A were compared with up to four, randomly chosen-, age-, sex-, and neighborhood-matched controls. Illness was strongly associated with consumption of raw mussels and clams within six weeks of onset of illness. When the two thirds of the subjects who had been exposed were classified according to the frequency with which they had recently consumed any type of raw shellfish, there was a clear dose-response relation. In February 1985, comprehensive control measures were introduced and the annual incidence of hepatitis A fell to 2.3 per 100,000 population, a 10-fold decrease from the preepidemic period. ProCite Record Number: 1660Journal Short Form workform?OStroffolini, T. W. Biagini L. Lorenzoni G. P. Palazzesi M. Divizia R. Frongillo1990;An outbreak of hepatitis A in young adults in central Italy156-159 European Journal of Epidemiology62Between September, 1988 and January, 1989 a common source outbreak of 47 cases of serologically confirmed hepatitis A occurred in a town of central Italy. Thirty-eight cases were primary, three co-primary and six secondary. The highest age-specific attack rate was seen in subjects aged 15-24 years (120 per 100,000); the mean age of cases was 24.6 years and the median age was 22 years. A matched triplet case-control study showed significant association between the disease and consumption of either raw mussels (41% of cases, compared with 10% of controls; P less than 0.0001) or a single brand of mineral water (63% of cases, compared with 41% of controls; P less than 0.05). The mean age of the cases reflects the shift in primary susceptibility to the infection from younger to older age groups, a finding which has recently been demonstrated by several seroepidemiological surveys in Italy. ProCite Record Number: 1670Journal Short Form workform?Ramsay, C. N. P. A. Upton1989"Hepatitis A and frozen raspberries43-44Lancet1 notavailableProCite Record Number: 1670Journal Short Form workformF? Anonymous19905Food poisoning outbreak linked to Sydney rock oystersZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe3ProCite Record Number: 1680Journal Short Form workformT?Reid, T. M. H. G. Robinson1987"Frozen raspberries and hepatitis A109-112Epidemiology and Infection981An outbreak of 24 cases of hepatitis A in Aberdeen was traced to a large hotel in the city by epidemiological investigation. Food-specific questioning of those affected, their fellow diners and hotel staff, coupled with serological studies, implicated raspberry mousse prepared from frozen raspberries as the source of the infection. The raspberries were probably contaminated at the time of picking. ProCite Record Number: 1680Journal Short Form workform?5Bemiss, J. A. M. M. Logan J. D. Sample G. P. Richards1990JA method for the enumeration of poliovirus in selected molluscan shellfish209-218Journal of Virological Methods26ProCite Record Number: 1690Journal Short Form workform?%Jehl-Pietri, C. B. Hugues R. Deloince1990iViral and bacterial contamination of mussels (Mytilus edulis) exposed in an unpolluted marine environment126-129Letters in Applied Microbiology113jBacterial indicating faecal contamination, cell-culturable enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were investigated in sea-water and in mussels exposed in an unpolluted marine environment, over a 7-month period with two samplings per month. Of the 16 mussel samples examined, none contained cell-culturable enteroviruses, four showed a low-level contamination by HAV and two did not conform to the current bacteriological norms. No conection was observed between the viral and bacterial contamination. No viral contamination was detected in the sea-water samples, but two gave bacterial counts above current norms. ProCite Record Number: 1700Journal Short Form workform=?7Grabow, W. O. K. G. K. Idema P. Coubrough B. W. Bateman1989SSelection of indicator systems for human viruses in polluted seawater and shellfish111-117Water Science and Technology213z(Original) Marine pollution, viruses, indicators, quality criteria, shellish, wastewater, health risk, bathing, infectionsA total of 610 samples of marine sewage discharges, polluted seawater and shellfish have been analysed for human enteric viruses and indicators of faecal/sewage pollution. Viruses were recovered by ultrafiltration from water samples of up to 10 liters, and by extraction from 50g samples of shellfish meat. Detection of viruses was by cytopathogenic effect in primary vervet kidney cells. Some samples were tested for rota- and hepatitis A virus antigens using immunosorbent assays. Of the 202 samples from which viruses were cultured, 45% yielded enteroviruses and 87% reoviruses. The ratio of counts of viruses and indicators varied extensively in samples of both seawater and shellfish. Viruses or their antigens were detected in a number of samples which yielded negative results in conventional tests for at least one indicator. The results show that currently used quality criteria based on coliform indicators have shortcomings with regard to viruses. These findings, as well as experience and policies in other parts of the world, were applied in formulating revised quality criteria for seawater used for recreational purposes, and shellfish meat intended for human comsumption. The recommended criteria include limits for human viruses, faecal coliform bacteria, faecal streptococci and coliphages. The test methods used in conjunction with these criteria are considered important, and methods for viruses should be able to detect reoviruses.ProCite Record Number: 1710Journal Short Form workform ?Power, U. F. and J. K. Collins1990fTissue distribution of a coliphage and Escherichia coli in mussels after contamination and depuration.803-807&Applied and Environmental Microbiology563Experiments were undertaken to determine the tissue distribution of Escherichia coli and a coliphage after contamination of the common mussel (Mytilus edulis). Mussels were contaminated with high levels of feces-associated E. coli and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage over a 2-day period in a flowing-seawater facility. After contamination, individual tissues were carefully dissected and assayed for E. coli and the coliphage. Contaminated mussels were also analyzed to determine the tissue distribution of the contaminants after 24- and 48-h depuration periods. The majority of each contaminant was located in the digestive tract (94 and 89% of E. coli and coliphage, respectively). Decreasing concentrations were found in the gills and labial palps, foot and muscles, mantle lobes, and hemolymph. Our results indicate that contamination above levels in water occurred only in the digestive tract. Contaminated mussels were depurated in a commercial-scale recirculating UV depuration system over a 48-h period. The percent reductions of E. coli occurred in the following order: digestive tract, hemolymph, foot and muscles, mantle lobes, and gills and labial palps. The percent reductions of the coliphage were different, occurring in the following order: hemolymph, foot and muscles, gills and labial palps, mantle lobes, and digestive tract. Our results clearly demonstrate that E. coli and the coliphage are differentially eliminated from the digestive tract. The two microorganisms are eliminated at similar rates from the remaining tissues. Our results also clearly show that the most significant coliphage retention after depuration for 48 h is in the digestive tract. Thus, conventional depuration practices are inappropriate for efficient virus elimination from mussels. ProCite Record Number: 1720Journal Short Form workform~?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1990Elimination of coliphages and Escherichia coli from mussels during depuration under varying conditions of temperature, salinity, and food availability 208-212, 226Journal of Food Protection533BStudies were undertaken to determine the effect of temperature, salinity, and food availability on the efficiencies of elimination of Escherichia coli and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage from experimentally contaminated mussels. Test temperatures (5.5, 10, 16.5ºC) and salinities (18.2, 28.6 ppt) reflected normal seasonal fluctuations during routine commercial depuration. The initial E. coli levels were reduced by >99% within 52 at all temperatures. In contrast, efficient coliphage elimination occurred at 16.5ºC only. The initial E.coli levels were reduced by >99% at both salinities, while coliphage elimination was relatively inefficient under similar conditions. In unfiltered seawater, the addition or omission of food, in the form of Tetraselmis suecica, had no appreciable effect on either E. coli or coliphage elimination from mussels. In filter-clarified seawater, E. coli elimination was more efficient and coliphage elimination was considerably enhanced when food was added. In the absence of food, coliphage elimination was very inefficient. The results of these studies indicate that bacterial elimination from mussels during depuration is efficient through the range of parameters used. In contrast, coliphage elimination was generally inefficient throughout the study, suggesting that depuration, as currently practiced, cannot be relied upon to render mussels completely free of virial contaimiation. These studies emphasize that successful bacterial depuration does not reflect viral elimintion and therefore, bacterial standards for efficient depuration of viruses are unreliable.ProCite Record Number: 1730Journal Short Form workform?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1989kThe production of microbiologically safe shellfish - lessons from the classification of shellfish at source124-130Environment and Health975ProCite Record Number: 1750Journal Short Form workformk? Farkas, J.1989*Microbiological safety of irradiated foods1-15*International Journal of Food Microbiology91ReviewThis paper attempts to summarize relevant information on microbiological safety of irradiated foods in the light of previous reports of expert committees and current literature references. After a brief survey of the relative radiation resistance of food-borne microorganisms, the importance of microbial load for dose requirement, and the role of post-irradiation conditions, it addresses the following questions: Could selective changes in the microflora, caused by non-sterilizing radiation doses, make known pathogens more likely to occur, or bring into prominence unfamiliar pathogens? Is it probable that 'mutational' (including adaptive) changes might make pathogens more virulent, more harmful, or more difficult to recognize, and could new pathogens arise in this way? Is it possible that development of radiation-resistant strains might render the antimicrobial irradiation processes ineffective? The present survey of relevant scientific evidence related to these questions reaffirms the basic conclusion of earlier reviews, that microbiological safety of irradiated food is fully comparable with that of foods preserved by other acceptable preservation methods. Similar to other preservation processes, gains in microbiological or keeping quality attained by food irradiation can be and must be safeguarded by proper control in the food irradiation facilities and by proper care of the product before and after processing. ProCite Record Number: 1760Journal Short Form workforml?*Levine, W. C. W. T. Stephenson G. F. Craun1990'Waterborne disease outbreaks, 1986-19881-13%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report391From 1986 to 1988, 24 states and Puerto Rico reported 50 outbreaks of illness due to water that people intended to drink, affecting 25,846 persons. The protozoal parasite Giardia lamblia was the agent most commonly implicated in outbreaks, as it has been for the last 10 years; many of these outbreaks were associated with ingestion of chlorinated but unfiltered surface water. Shigella sonnei was the most commonly implicated bacterial pathogen; in outbreaks caused by this pathogen, water supplies were found to be contaminated with human waste. Cryptosporidium contamination of a chlorinated, filtered public water supply caused the largest outbreak during this period, affecting an estimated 13,000 persons. A large multistate outbreak caused by commercially produced ice made from contaminated well water caused illness with Norwalk-like virus among an estimated 5,000 persons. The first reported outbreak of chronic diarrhea of unknown cause associated with drinking untreated well water occurred in 1987. Twenty-six outbreaks due to recreational water use were also reported, including outbreaks of Pseudomonas dermatitis associated with the use of hot tubs or whirlpools, and swimming-associated shigellosis, giardiasis, and viral illness. Although the total number of reported water-related outbreaks has been declining in recent years, the few large outbreaks due to Cryptosporidium, Norwalk-like agent, Shigella sonnei, and Giardia lamblia caused more cases of illness in 1987 than have been reported to the Water-Related Disease Outbreak Surveillance System for any other year since CDC and the Environmental Protection Agency began tabulating these data in 1971. ProCite Record Number: 1770Journal Short Form workform?wBloch, A. B. S. L. Stramer J. D. Smith H. S. Margolis H. A. Fields T. W. McKinley C. P. Gerba J. E. Maynard R. K. Sikes1990iRecovery of hepatitis A virus from a water supply responsible for a common source outbreak of hepatitis A428-430!American Journal of Public Health804-An outbreak of hepatitis A occurred in a north Georgia trailer park served by a private well. Of 18 residents who were serosusceptible to hepatitis A virus (HAV), 16 (89%) developed hepatitis A. Well water samples were collected 3 months after illness onset in the index case and 28 days after illness onset in the last trailer park resident. Hepatitis A virus antigen (HAVAg) was detected in the samples by enzyme immunoassay from three of the five cell lines following two 30-day passages and from a fourth cell line following a third passage of 21 days. ProCite Record Number: 1780Journal Short Form workform?aVelazquez, O. H. C. Stetler C. Aila G. Ornelas C. Alvarez S. C. Hadler D. W. Bradley J. Sepulveda1990\Epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Mexico, 1986-1987 3281-3285+Journal of the American Medical Association26324XOutbreaks of acute hepatitis occurred in Huitzililla and Telixtac, two rural villages 70 miles south of Mexico City, Mexico, in late 1986. The first outbreak began in Huitzililla in June of that year, 1 month after the start of the rainy season. A census revealed 94 icteric case subjects, for an attack rate of 5%; two women died. Attack rates were higher for persons older than 15 years (10%) than for younger persons. A case-control study showed that illness was highly associated with water-related factors. The second outbreak began in August 1986 in Telixtac. There were 129 case subjects, for an attack rate of 6%; one woman died. Epidemiologic findings were similar to those in Huitzililla, except that most disease transmission was not linked to unsafe water sources. None of 62 case subjects in Huitzililla and only 2 of 53 case subjects in Telixtac tested had serological evidence for recent infection with hepatitis A or B. Two of eight stool samples from Huitzililla and one of the eight stool samples from Telixtac were positive by immune electron microscopy for 32- to 34-nm viruslike particles similar to those seen in cases of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis from Asia. To our knowledge, these investigations document for the first time the epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis virus in the Americas. ProCite Record Number: 1790Journal Short Form workformy?5Payment, P. A. Berube D. Perreault R. Armon M. Trudel1989Concentration of Giardia lamblia cysts, Legionella pneumophila, Clostridium perfringens, human enteric viruses, and coliphages from large volumes of drinking water, using a single filtration932-935 Canadian Journal of Microbiology35Poliovirus, coliphages, Giardia lamblia cysts, Clostridium perfringens spores, and Legionella pneumophila were concentrated simultaneously in a single pass by sequential filtration of large volumes of drinking water through 3- and 1-micron wound electronegative fiberglass cartridge filters (25.4 cm). Filtration was performed under acidic conditions (pH 3.5) in the presence of 0.001 M aluminum chloride to enhance adsorption. Elution of all the microorganisms entrapped or adsorbed to the filters was obtained by a slow backwash elution with a 1.5% beef extract solution, pH 9.75, containing 0.5% Tween 80. Tween 80 was shown to enhance recovery of the bacteriophages, bacteria, and parasites. Giardia cysts were efficiently eluted (71%) and could be reconcentrated by low-speed centrifugation and purified by sucrose density gradient flotation at a final recovery of 52%. Legionella pneumophila cells were eluted at 64% and were further concentrated by low-speed centrifugation at an overall recovery of 55%. C. perfringens spores and coliphages were eluted at efficiencies of 82 and 86%, respectively, and reconcentrated with minimal loss by a detergent - protein flotation method. Poliovirus was eluted at 93% and reconcentrated at 78% efficiency by organic flocculation. ProCite Record Number: 1800Journal Short Form workform#?!Geldenhuys, J. C. P. D. Pretorius1989|The occurrence of enteric viruses in polluted water, correlation to indicator organims and factors influencing their numbers105-109Water Science and Technology213ProCite Record Number: 1810Journal Short Form workform?0Walter, R. R. Dumke J. Durkop S. Guyer U. Kramer1990.Virological investigations of the River Danube333-343Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol.18ProCite Record Number: 1820Journal Short Form workform?O'Keefe, B. J. Green1989_Coliphages as indicator of faecal pollution at three recreational beaches on the Firth of Forth 1027-1030Water Research238ProCite Record Number: 1830Journal Short Form workform?Skilton, H. D. Wheeler1989DThe application of bacteriophage as tracers of chalk aquifer systems549-557Journal of Applied Bacteriology66ProCite Record Number: 1840Journal Short Form workform$?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1990kProtection against viral hepatitis: Recommendations of the immunization practices advisory committee (ACIP)1-26%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report39RR-2ProCite Record Number: 1850Journal Short Form workform?-Mbithi, J. N. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Sattar1990DChemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces 3601-3604&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5611Hepatitis A virus disinfection was assessed on contaminated stainless-steel disks. Ten microliters of fecally suspended hepatitis A virus was deposited on the center of each disk, dried for 20 min, and then covered with 20 microliters of the test product for 1 min. Of the 20 formulations tested, only 2% glutaraldehyde, a quaternary ammonium formulation containing 23% HCl (toilet bowl cleaner), and sodium hypochlorite (greater than 5,000 ppm [greater than 5,000 micrograms/ml] of free chlorine) reduced the virus titer by greater than 99.9%; phenolics, iodine-based products, alcohols, and solutions of acetic, peracetic, citric, and phosphoric acids were unable to do so. ProCite Record Number: 1860Journal Short Form workformc?cSharma, M. D. P. Maillard S. Vrati R. Mukherjee M. S. Rajagopalan T. Poynard G. P. Talwar J. Pillot1990sSerial passage of West-European sporadic non-A non-B hepatitis in rhesus monkeys by inoculation with fecal extracts36-41Journal of Medical Virology301An experimental model of sporadic non-A non-B hepatitis involving a Fab nonimmune binding activity in stools was established in the rhesus monkey. The first animal was inoculated intravenously with a stool extract from a French patient who had never left the country and in whom post-transfusion hepatitis was excluded. Four passages were performed, and the infection was transmitted by parenteral as well as the oral routes by inoculation of stools or liver extracts. Infection led in three monkeys to reversible hepatocyte injury manifested by a transitory increase in serum aminotransferases. The other three animals, in which persistently high levels of aminotransferases was observed, were sacrificed on day 60 after inoculation. The incubation period, as evidenced by elevation of aminotransferases was about 3 to 4 weeks. The infectious agent was transitorily present in the stools before aminotransferase elevation. The presence of the infectious agent in the stools was correlated with the nonimmune Fab binding activity. ProCite Record Number: 1870Journal Short Form workform? Lewis, D. C.1990\Three serotypes of Norwalk-like virus demonstrated by solid-phase immune electron microscopy77-81Journal of Medical Virology301Solid phase immune electron microscopy (SPIEM) was used to investigate the serological differences between Norwalk-like virus (NLV) strains from five different outbreaks within the United Kingdom. The existence of two previously demonstrated serotypes, Lewis et al. (Journal of Clinical Microbiology 26:938-942, 1988), was confirmed by the use of whole convalescent sera and purified IgM. A third serotype was found to be the agent of two recent hospital outbreaks and could similarly be typed by use of whole sera or pure IgM. Paired sera were available for two of the three serotypes and demonstrated rising antibody levels. These antibody rises were also specific for the infecting serotype. However, two serum pairs from a later outbreak gave antibody rises to all three serotypes, although much higher counts were produced with the infecting serotype. SPIEM is a useful method for distinguishing NLV serotypes and can also be used to detect specific IgM and to demonstrate seroconversion. Cross-reacting antibodies, possibly anamnestic in origin, can occur after natural infection and could cause confusion in typing virus unless further evidence of the identity of the infecting agent is obtained. ProCite Record Number: 1890Journal Short Form workform?XMatsumoto, K. M. Hatano K. Kobayashi A. Hasegawa S. Yamazaki S. Nakata S. Ciba Y. Kimura1989ZAn outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with acute rotaviral infection in schoolchildren611-615Journal of Infectious Diseases1604\In April 1988 a large outbreak of group C rotavirus infection associated with acute gastroenteritis occurred among schoolchildren and their teachers simultaneously at seven elementary schools in Fukui city, Japan. Of 3,102, 675 (21.8%) became ill. Clinical symptoms were mild, predominantly abdominal pain and vomiting, with diarrhea reported in only 27.6%. The outbreak subsided within 2 d. No pathogenic bacteria were found in fecal specimens; the virus particles detected by electron microscopy were morphologically indistinguishable from conventional infantile rotavirus. Immune electron microscopy showed that these virions formed large aggregates with convalescent serum and with the reference serum specific to group C rotavirus. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed similar RNA patterns for virus from this outbreak and typical group C rotavirus. ProCite Record Number: 1910Journal Short Form workform? ZWard, R. L. D. I. Bernstein R. Shukla M. M. McNeal J. R. Sherwood E. C. Young G. M. Schiff19908Protection of adults rechallenged with a human rotavirus440-445Journal of Infectious Diseases1613Previous studies of adults challenged with human rotavirus (CJN strain) showed that 74% became infected and 55% of those infected experienced illness. Protection against infection correlated with rotavirus antibody, most significantly (P = .005) serum rotavirus IgG. In this study, 20 previously challenged subjects were reinoculated with the same virus 9-12 months after their initial challenge. Only 1 of 8 subjects not infected after the initial challenge and 2 of 12 infected after the first inoculation became infected after reinoculation; none became ill. Titers of rotavirus antibodies (serum, jejunal, and stool) at the time of reinoculation were about as high as or higher than they were before the initial inoculation. This correlated with greater protection, but the extent of protection was significantly greater (P less than .0001) than predicted based on a previous model relating protection and preinoculation titers of serum rotavirus IgG. Thus, inoculation with human rotavirus provided homotypic protection for at least 9-12 months, and protection remained correlated with higher concentrations of rotavirus antibody. However, the specific relationship between protection and rotavirus antibody was altered after the initial inoculation. ProCite Record Number: 1920Journal Short Form workform? -Jiang, X. D. Y. Graham K. N. Wang M. K. Estes19901Norwalk virus genome cloning and characterization 1580-1583Science2504987Major epidemic outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis result from infections with Norwalk or Norwalk-like viruses. Virus purified from stool specimens of volunteers experimentally infected with Norwalk virus was used to construct recombinant complementary DNA (cDNA) and derive clones representing most of the viral genome. The specificity of the clones was shown by their hybridization with post- (but not pre-) infection stool samples from volunteers infected with Norwalk virus and with purified Norwalk virus. A correlation was observed between the appearance of hybridization signals in stool samples and clinical symptoms of acute gastroenteritis in volunteers. Hybridization assays between overlapping clones, restriction enzyme analyses, and partial nucleotide sequence information of the clones indicated that Norwalk virus contains a single-stranded RNA genome of positive sense, with a polyadenylated tail at the 3' end and a size of at least 7.5 kilobases. A consensus amino acid sequence motif typical of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases was identified in one of the Norwalk virus clones. The availability of Norwalk-specific cDNA and the new sequence information of the viral genome should permit the development of sensitive diagnostic assays and studies of the molecular biology of the virus. ProCite Record Number: 1930Journal Short Form workformS? Todd, E. C. D.1989HPreliminary estimates of costs of foodborne disease in the United States595-601Journal of Food Protection528fFoodborne-diseases, food-contamination, estimated-costs, microorganisms, mortality, economic, analysis  Although the full economic impact of foodborne diseases has yet to be measured, preliminary studies show that the cost of illness, death, and business lost is high indeed. This impact is probably greatest in developing countries, but few facts are known. For the United States, preliminary estimates are 12.6 million cases costing $8.4 billion. These may seem excessive but other authors have postulated even higher case and dollar figures. Microbiological diseases (bacterial and viral) represent 84% of the United States' costs, with salmonellosis and staphylococcal intoxication being the most economically important diseases (annually $4.0 billion and $1.5 billion, respectively). Other costly types of illnesses are toxoplasmosis ($445 million), listeriosis ($313 million), campylobacteriosis ($156 million), trichinosis ($144 million), Clostridium perfringens enteritis ($123 million), and E. coli infections including hemorrhagic colitis ($223 million). Botulism has a high cost per case ($322,200), but its total impact is only $87 million because relatively few cases occur (270). This is because the food industry has been able to introduce effective control measures. Salmonellosis, however, is much more widespread (2.9 million cases) and affects all sectors of the food industry.ProCite Record Number: 1940Journal Short Form workform?  Appleton, H.1991 Hepatitis109-1168Public Health Aspects of Seafood-Borne Zoonotic Diseases1=Bernoth, E. M. Ed. VetMed Hefte Robert von Ostertag-InstituteProCite Record Number: 1960Book Chapter workform'?  Anonymous1990Foodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1986-1988. Part 1. Trends in reporting cases and outbreaks of food poisoning and salmonellosis3-6#Communicable Disease Report, London9015ProCite Record Number: 1970Journal Short Form workform? Anonymous1990rFoodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1986-1988. Part 2. Review of agents causing foodborne illness3-6#Communicable Disease Report, London9019ProCite Record Number: 1980Journal Short Form workform?KBarardi, C. R. M. H. Yip K. R. Emsile G. Vesey S. R. Shanker K. L. Williams1999TFlow cytometry and RT-PCR for rotavirus detection in artificially seeded oyster meat9-18*International Journal of Food Microbiology491-2yA flow cytometry (FC)-based method was developed for the detection of rotavirus in oyster meat using simian rotavirus SA11 as a model. To study virus recovery, oyster meat was injected with rotavirus and the oyster extract used to infect MA104 cell monolayers. Following varying periods of infection, the cells were recovered and reacted with the monoclonal antibody M60 which is specific for the rotavirus group A serotypes 1-4 outer capsid protein, VP7, followed by a second antibody (anti mouse IgG-FITC). A FACScan FC was used to estimate the number of infected cells as well as the level of infection. To evaluate the sensitivity of the method, non-inoculated oysters were processed following the same extraction protocol and, at the end, they were seeded with the same amount of virus used for oyster inoculation. This seeded oyster extract was then used to infect MA104 cells and the number of infected cells determined using the same FC procedure. A semi-nested two-step PCR for detection of rotavirus nucleic acid was undertaken to compare the sensitivity of FC with RT-PCR. Using FC, as little as 0.02 flow cytometry units (fcu) (number of infected cells counted by FC) could be detected after 72 h of cell infection. This is a very similar limit of sensitivity to that obtained with RT-PCR. Both methods are approximately 100 times more sensitive than the plaque-forming units (pfu) assay. ProCite Record Number: 1990Journal Short Form workform?PCaputo, C. A. Forbes F. Frost M. I. Sinclair T. R. Kunde J. F. Hoy C. K. Fairley1999eDeterminants of antibodies to Cryptosporidium infection among gay and bisexual men with HIV infection291-297Epidemiology and Infection1222A cross-sectional serosurvey for markers of prior Cryptosporidium infection was conducted among homosexual or bisexual males infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); of 262 individuals approached, 236 (90%) agreed to participate. Serological response to two Cryptosporidium antigens was measured using a Western blot assay. The intensity or detection of serological responses to two Cryptosporidium antigens was not associated with CD4 cell counts or tap water consumption. A number of sexual practices were related to increased serological response for only the 27-kDa marker, including having had sex within the past 2 years, having anal sex and having had a larger number of sex partners during the past 2 years. Attending a spa or sauna was related to serological response to both the 27-kDa and 17-kDa markers. Based on these results, activities related to sexual activity appear to be a significant risk factors for prior Cryptosporidium infection. ProCite Record Number: 1990Journal Short Form workform?Chauduri, M. S. A. Sattar19901Domestic water treatment for developing countries168-184=Drinking Water Microbiology: Progress and Recent DevelopmentsG. A. McFeters (Ed.)Springer-Verlag New York Inc.ProCite Record Number: 2000Book Long Form workform? Amahmid, O. S. Asmama K. Bouhoum1999xThe effect of waste water reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs19-26*International Journal of Food Microbiology491-2[In Marrakech, raw sewage has been used for farming purposes for several decades for many types of crops. This study aimed to determine the contamination level of Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs for crops designated for human consumption. Collected crops in irrigated fields were turnip, marrow, squash, potatoes, pepper and eggplant. Field trials were also carried out on four crops, coriander, carrots, mint and radish, using three water types for irrigation, i.e. raw waste water, treated waste water (sedimentation and 16 days retention) and fresh water. Giardia cysts were detected at a level of 5.1 cysts/kg in potatoes, while Ascaris eggs were observed in numbers varying between 0.18 eggs/kg in potatoes and 0.27 eggs/kg in turnip. Field trials confirmed that irrigation of crops by raw waste water leads to contamination. Giardia and Ascaris were isolated in coriander at concentrations of 254 cysts/kg and 2.7 eggs/kg, respectively; mint was also highly contaminated with numbers reaching 96 cysts/kg and 4.63 eggs/kg. Carrots and radish were contaminated and respective numbers observed for Giardia were 155 and 59.1 cysts/kg; Ascaris was discovered in numbers of 0.7 and 1.64 eggs/kg, respectively. However, cultures irrigated with treated waste water and fresh water were free from contamination. Cysts and eggs on coriander persisted for a maximum of 8 days. ProCite Record Number: 2000Journal Short Form workform?(Sobsey, M. D. Y. S. C. Shieh R. S. Baric1990hDetection of hepatitis A virus and other enteroviruses in environmental samples using gene probe methods193-212XBiotechnology and Food Safety: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Oct. 1989Bills, D. D. S.D. Kung (Ed.)BostonButterworth-HeinemannProCite Record Number: 2010Book Long Form workform?;Blackman, E. S. Binder C. Gaultier R. Benveniste M. Cecilio1997Cryptosporidiosis in HIV-infected patients: diagnostic sensitivity of stool examination, based on number of specimens submitted451-453$American Journal of Gastroenterology923OBJECTIVES: To determine the optimal number of stool specimens needed for the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis. METHODS: Four hundred thirty-five admissions were reviewed (291 patients) in which stool specimens were examined for Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (mean of 1.47 specimens per admission), using a modified acid-fast stain. The diagnostic yield of each specimen was determined. RESULTS: Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were found in 81 of 435 admissions (18.6%). Ninety-six percent of the positive cases were detected on the first stool specimen analysis, and 100% were detected by the second specimen. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of one specimen is generally appropriate for the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis in a hospitalized patient with AIDS presenting with diarrhea. Examination of a second specimen may be appropriate if the first specimen is negative and there is a high clinical index of suspicion. ProCite Record Number: 2010Journal Short Form workformZ?.Estes, M. K. X. Jiang Y. J. Zhou T. G. Metcalf19904Nucleic acid hybridization to detect enteric viruses185-191XBiotechnology and Food Safety: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Oct. 1989Bills, D. D. S. D. Kung (Ed.)BostonButterworth-HeinemannProCite Record Number: 2020Book Long Form workform? Appleton, H.19902Laboratory investigations of viral gastroenteritis5#Communicable Disease Report, London9043ProCite Record Number: 2030Journal Short Form workform?Rose, J. B. T. R. Slifko1999LGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review 1059-1070Journal of Food Protection 629While the risk from pathogenic microorganisms in foods has been recognized for hundreds of years, bacterial agents are generally implicated as the contaminants. Although many outbreaks of gastroenteritis caused by protozoan pathogens have occurred, it is only in the last 3 years that attention has focused on protozoan association with foodborne transmission. Recognized as waterborne parasites, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora have now been associated with several foodborne outbreaks. The oocysts and cysts of these organisms can persist and survive for long periods of time both in water and on foods. While Cyclospora oocysts require a maturation period, Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts are immediately infectious upon excretion from the previous host. As a result, these parasites have emerged as public health risks and have become a concern to the food industry. More than 200 cases of foodborne giardiasis (seven outbreaks) were reported from 1979 to 1990. Four foodborne Cryptosporidium outbreaks (with a total of 252 cases) have been documented since 1993. Cyclospora caused a series of sporadic outbreaks of cyclosporasis throughout North America that have affected over 3,038 people since 1995. Control and prevention of protozoan foodborne disease depends upon our ability to prevent, remove, or kill protozoan contaminants. This review will address the biology, foodborne and waterborne transmission, survival, and methods for detection and control of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora.ProCite Record Number: 2050Journal Short Form workform$? Furuse, K.198787-124 Phage Ecology'Goyal, S. M. C. P. Gerba G. Bitton (Ed)John Wiley & SonsProCite Record Number: 2060Book Long Form workform?&Slifko, T. R. D. E. Huffman J. B. Rose1999YA most-probable-number assay for enumeration of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts 3936-3941&Applied and Environmental Microbiology659Cryptosporidium is globally established as a contaminant of drinking and recreational waters. A previously described cell culture infectivity assay capable of detecting infectious oocysts was adapted to quantify viable oocysts through sporozoite invasion and clustering of foci. Eight experiments were performed by using oocysts less than 4 months of age to inoculate host HCT-8 cell monolayers. Oocysts were diluted in a standard 5- or 10-fold multiple dilution format, levels of infection and clustering were determined, and the most probable number (MPN) of infectious oocysts in the stock suspension was calculated. The MPN was compared to the initial oocyst inoculum to determine the level of correlation. For oocysts less than 30 days of age, the correlation coefficient (r) was 0.9726 (0.9306 to 0.9893; n = 20). A two-tailed P value (alpha = 0.05) indicated that P was less than 0.0001. This strong correlation suggests that the MPN can be used to effectively enumerate infectious oocysts in a cell culture system. Age affected the degree of oocyst infectivity. Oocyst infectivity was tested by the focus detection method (FDM)-MPN assay and in BALB/c mice before and after treatment with pulsed white light (PureBrite). The FDM-MPN assay and animal infectivity assays both demonstrated more than a 4 log(10) inactivation. Municipal water systems and a host of other water testing organizations could utilize the FDM-MPN assay for routine survival and disinfection studies. ProCite Record Number: 2060Journal Short Form workform? Clark, D. P.1999)New insights into human cryptosporidiosis554-563Clinical Microbiology Reviews124reviewSCryptosporidium parvum is an important cause of diarrhea worldwide. Cryptosporidium causes a potentially life-threatening disease in people with AIDS and contributes significantly to morbidity among children in developing countries. In immunocompetent adults, Cryptosporidium is often associated with waterborne outbreaks of acute diarrheal illness. Recent studies with human volunteers have indicated that Cryptosporidium is highly infectious. Diagnosis of infection with this parasite has relied on identification of acid-fast oocysts in stool; however, new immunoassays or PCR-based assays may increase the sensitivity of detection. Although the mechanism by which Cryptosporidium causes diarrhea is still poorly understood, the parasite and the immune response to it probably combine to impair absorption and enhance secretion within the intestinal tract. Important genetic studies suggest that humans can be infected by at least two genetically distinct types of Cryptosporidium, which may vary in virulence. This may, in part, explain the clinical variability seen in patients with cryptosporidiosis. ProCite Record Number: 2070Journal Short Form workformX?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1994,Mixed waste studies with viruses and Giardia573-578On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. Dec. 11-13, 1994. Atlanta GA.Collins, E. Ed.ProCite Record Number: 2080Book Long Form workformm?Woody, M. A. D. O. Cliver1994?FRNA coliphages for monitoring groundwater near on-site systems551-558On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. Dec. 11-13, 1994. Atlanta GA.E. Collins (Ed.)ProCite Record Number: 2090Book Long Form workform|7Roberts, P. Hope, A.2003@Virus inactivation by high intensity broad spectrum pulsed light61-5J Virol Methods1101Animals Cattle Cell Line Dogs Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation Humans *Light Proteins Sunlight Ultraviolet Rays Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism *Virus Inactivation Viruses/*radiation effectsJun 9The inactivation of a range of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses by treatment with high intensity broad spectrum pulsed light (PureBright) has been investigated. In phosphate buffered saline, a dose of 1.0 J/cm2 was sufficient to effectively inactivate, i.e. >4.8->7.2 log of all the viruses tested, i.e. Sindbis, HSV-1, vaccinia, polio-1, EMC, HAV, CPV, BPV and SV40. However, in the presence of protein, i.e. 5% v/v foetal-calf serum (0.2% w/v protein), virus inactivation was less effective. At a dose of 2.0 J/cm2, virus inactivation was 5.0->6.4 log, however, HSV-1 (3.8 log), BPV (2.4 log) and SV40 (2.9 log) were all relatively resistant. This virus inactivation procedure may have application for increasing the safety of therapeutic biological products.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=12757921oRoberts, Peter Hope, Andrew Netherlands Journal of virological methods J Virol Methods. 2003 Jun 9;110(1):61-5.0166-0934 (Print)12757921Bio Products Laboratory, Research and Development Department, Dagger Lane, Elstree, WD6 3BX, Herts, UK. peter.roberts@bpl.co.uk S0166093403000983 [pii]eng VK|73Sair, A. I. D'Sou?8Armson, A. B. P. Meloni J. A. Reynoldson R. C. Thompson1999[Assessment of drugs against Cryptosporidium parvum using a simple in vitro screening method227-233FEMS Microbiology Letters1782A rapid semi-quantitative screening method was devised for assessing the anticryptosporidial and cytotoxic effects of putative chemotherapeutic compounds. The method is suitable as an initial rapid screening procedure from which compounds demonstrating anticryptosporidial activity can be identified for further analysis. It has the advantages of speed, low cost and concurrent assessment of anticryptosporidial and cytotoxic effects and allows accurate determination of minimum lethal concentrations. Of the 71 compounds screened, six completely inhibited cryptosporidial growth at 1 microM (monensin, salinomycin, alborixin, lasalocid, trifluralin and nicarbazin) and a further eight showed significant anticryptosporidial activity at 1 or 20 microM (halquinol, bleomycin, suramin, mitomycin, doxycycline hydrochloride, toltrazuril, chloroquine phosphate and teniposide). Twelve compounds were found to have some degree of cytotoxicity at 1 microM and a further 12 at 20 microM. ProCite Record Number: 2100Journal Short Form workform?1Graczyk, T. K. M. R. Cranfield R. Fayer H. Bixler1999JHouse flies (Musca domestica) as transport hosts of Cryptosporidium parvum500-5041American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene613 transmissionRefuse and promiscuous-landing synanthropic filth flies, such as house flies (Musca domestica), are recognized as transport hosts for a variety of protozoan and metazoan parasites in addition to viral and bacterial pathogens of public health importance. Exposure of adult M. domestica to 20 ml of bovine diarrheal feces containing Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (2.0 x 10(5) oocysts/ml) resulted in intense deposition of the oocysts through fly feces on the surfaces visited by the flies (mean = 108 oocysts/cm2). Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were detected by immunofluorescent antibodies on the exoskeleton of adult flies and in their digestive tracts. An average of 267, 131, 32, 19, and 14 oocysts per adult fly were eluted from its exoskeleton on days 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 after they emerged, respectively. Approximately 320 C. parvum oocysts per pupa were eluted from the external surface of the pupae derived from maggots that breed in a substrate contaminated with the bovine feces; the oocysts were numerous on maggots (approximately 150 oocysts/maggot). Adult and larval stages of house flies breeding or having access to C. parvum-contaminated substrate will mechanically carry the oocysts in their digestive tracts and on their external surfaces. ProCite Record Number: 2110Journal Short Form workform8? [Graczyk, T. K. R. Fayer M. R. Cranfield B. Mhangami-Ruwende R. Knight J. M. Trout H. Bixler19999Filth Flies Are Transport Hosts of Cryptosporidium parvum726-727Emerging Infectious Diseases55 transmission not availableProCite Record Number: 2120Journal Short Form workform?! Appleton, H.1990$Foodborne illness: foodborne viruses 1362-1364Lancet3368727Review not availableProCite Record Number: 2160Journal Short Form workform\?"Wilson, J. A. A. B. Margolin1999dThe efficacy of three common hospital liquid germicides to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts231-237Journal of Hospital Infection4232inactivation, disinfection; infectivity; viabilityWe evaluated three commonly used hospital disinfectants against three concentrations of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (1.5 x 10(6), 1.5 x 10(5), 1.5 x 10(4)). A 10% phenol product, a 10% povidone-iodine product and a 2.5% glutaraldehyde product were tested against Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts without organic load. In-vitro excystation was used to determine viability and a cell culture assay was used to determine infectivity of germicide-treated oocysts. A 2.5% glutaraldehyde product was the most effective in halting excystation of sporozoites and infection in cell monolayers. However, this occurred only at the longest exposure time of 10 h and with the lowest concentration of oocysts (1.5 x 10(4)). The 10% phenol product and the 10% povidone-iodine product also decreased excystation, but were unable to halt infection. Although the ability of C. parvum to with-stand chemical treatment is well known, the ability of oocysts to remain viable and infectious after a 10 h treatment in glutaraldehyde is cause for concern. Endoscopic equipment that may come into contact with these organisms cannot be immersed into glutaraldehyde for this length of time due to its corrosive nature. Thus, the results of this research are cause for concern in hospital disinfection units. ProCite Record Number: 21705Journal Short Form workform (42) jwilson@ora.fda.gov  ?#AGunn, R. A. H. T. Janowski S. Lieb E. C. Prather H. B. Greenberg 1982>Norwalk virus gastroenteritis following raw oyster consumption348-351 American Journal of Epidemiology1153In January, 1980, six out of 13 persons (46%) attending a party in a small northwest Florida town near the Gulf of Mexico became ill with Norwalk virus gastroenteritis after eating raw oysters. Symptoms experienced by the ill persons were principally nausea (100%), vomiting (83%) and diarrhea (50%) and were of brief duration. The symptom complex and epidemiology of Norwalk virus infection closely resemble the gastrointestinal illness commonly referred to as the 24-hour intestinal flu or "stomach flu." Norwalk virus infection was identified in this outbreak by application of a recently developed sensitive and specific serologic radioimmunoassay. Oysters from the incriminated batch had fecal coliform levels above recommended standards; however, recent studies of oyster-harvesting waters have shown only a weak correlation between fecal coliforms and the presence of enteric viruses. Further studies are needed to determine whether modifications of monitoring modalities for oyster-harvesting waters are needed. ProCite Record Number: 2190Journal Short Form workform??$<Wang, J. Y. S. L. Hu H. Y. Liu Y. L. Hong S. Z. cao L. F. Wu1990KRisk factor analysis of an epidemic of hepatitis A in a factory in Shanghai435-438%International Journal of Epidemiology192&Investigation of an epidemic of hepatitis A which occurred in Shanghai in early 1988 was conducted at the Shanghai No. 2 Yarn Dyeing and Weaving Mill. In this factory the attack rate between January and April 1988 was 9%. The rate was highest among staff who ate raw clams (18%) and higher among those who ate cooked clams (7%) than among those who did not eat clams (2%). In addition, independent risk factors for infection were: age below 30 years (relative risk (RR) = 3.0, 95% Cl: 2.0, 4.5) shift work (RR = 3.3, 95% Cl: 1.9, 5.8) and eating out (RR = 4.7, 95% Cl: 2.3, 9.7). Consumption of clams contaminated with hepatitis A was the main risk factor in this episode. The study indicates that strengthening surveillance of shellfish hygiene is important in preventing future epidemics of hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 2220Journal Short Form workform?% Potter, M. E.1996%Risk assessment terms and definitions6-9Journal of Food ProtectionSuppl. S?(Original) Foodborne disease, risk assessment, risk terminologyRisk assessment is the characterization of potential adverse effects of exposures to hazards, including estimates of the magnitude of the risk, the severity of outcome, and an indication of the uncertainties involved. Because risk assessments are based on statistical and other treatments of scientific data, the quality of such assessments is only as good as the data that go into their calculation. Sources of uncertainty include scanty and/or unrepresentative data, imprecise measuring devices, systematic flaws in the data collection process, variability in host response, and difficulties in the modeling process. Sources of uncertainty tend to be different for infectious and noninfectious hazards, which has led to the use of different risk assessment approaches. The ultimate goal in using risk assessment is to provide some objective estimate of risk that can be used by the food industry and regulatory agencies to assure that foods are acceptably ProCite Record Number: 2250Journal Short Form workform?& Cliver, D. O.1995*Detection and control of foodborne viruses353-358%Trends in Food Science and Technology611-(original) Disease outbreaks, gastroenteritisViruses are transmitted in foods as inert, submicroscopic particles that come from the human intestines. Serologic and molecular detection methods have been devised for the detection of hepatitis A and small, round, structured gastroenteritis viruses in feces, but are not yet applicable for their detection in foods. The control of viral transmission via foods still depends greatly upon preventing contamination or on the thorough cooking of virus-contaminated food.ProCite Record Number: 2290Journal Short Form workform?'!Köster, D F. Hofmann H. Berthold19901Hepatitis A immunity in food-handling occupations304-305AEuropean Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases94ProCite Record Number: 2340Journal Short Form workform?(WWarburton, A. R. E. T.G. Wreghitt A. Pamling R. Buttery K.N. Ward K.R. Perry J.V. Parry1991$Hepatitis A outbreak involving bread199-202Epidemiology and Infection1061An outbreak of hepatitis A involved more than 50 residents of a group of villages in the late spring and summer of 1989. The only food that was common to all the laboratory-confirmed cases was bread, purchased either unwrapped or as rolls, sandwiches or filled rolls, and supplied either directly from one shop or indirectly through its subsidiary outlets. It was concluded that this bread was the most likely vehicle of transmission of the hepatitis A virus and that the bread was contaminated by soiled hands which were inadequately washed because of painful skin lesions. Comprehensive control measures were successful in limiting further spread of the infection. This outbreak highlights the transmissibility of hepatitis A virus on food. The use of disposable gloves when handling food which is to be consumed without further cooking would prevent transmission of this or other infectious agents by this route. ProCite Record Number: 2370Journal Short Form workform?)&Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D. .1984CDisinfection of virus on hands for prevention of food-borne disease75-87Int. J. Food Microbiol.12 not availableProCite Record Number: 2390Journal Short Form workformd?* World Health Organization1992ZWHO surveillance programme for control of foodborne infections and intoxications in EuropeSixth Report 1990-1992ProCite Record Number: 2400Report workform?,BViral gastroenteritis sub-committee of the PHLS virology committee19933Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with SRSV's2-8PHLS Microbiology Digest101ProCite Record Number: 2430Journal Short Form workform?-$Osherovich, A. M. G. S. Chasovnikova1967OStudy on the isolation of enteroviruses from environmental objects (in Russian)89-90zMaterialy problemnoi komissii Akademia Meditsinkikh Nauk SSSR "Poliomyelit i virusnye entsefality," Vypusk 1, EnterovirusyChumakov, M. P. Ed.Moscow Akademia Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSRProCite Record Number: 2450Book Long Form workformq?.8United States Department of Health Education and Welfare1979FAseptic meningitis outbreak at a military installation in Pennsylvania11WAseptic Meningitis Surveillance annual summary 1976, HEW-CDC publication number 79-82310U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Atlanta, GA.ProCite Record Number: 2470Book Long Form workform?/7Alhajjar, B. J. S. L. Stramer D. O. Cliver J. M. Harkin1988=Transport modelling of biological tracers from septic systems907-915Water Research22ProCite Record Number: 2600Journal Short Form workform 3?2.Bean, N. H. J. S. Goulding C. Lao F. J. Angulo1996FSurveillance for foodborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1988-19921-66%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report4550 PROBLEM/CONDITION: Since 1973, CDC has maintained a collaborative surveillance program for collection and periodic reporting of data concerning the occurrence and causes of foodborne-disease outbreaks (FBDOs). REPORTING PERIOD COVERED: This summary reviews data from January 1988 through December 1992. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: The surveillance system reviews data concerning FBDOs--defined as the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food. Before 1992, only one case of intoxication by chemical, marine toxin, or Clostridium botulinum toxin as a result of the ingestion of food was required to constitute an FBDO. Since 1992, two or more cases have been required. State and local public health departments have primary responsibility for the identifying and investigating FBDOs. State and territorial health departments report these outbreaks to CDC on a standard form. RESULTS: During 1988-1992, a total of 2,423 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported (451 in 1988, 505 in 1989, 532 in 1990, 528 in 1991, and 407 in 1992). These outbreaks caused a reported 77,373 persons to become ill. Among outbreaks for which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest percentage of outbreaks (79%) and the largest percentage of cases (90%). Salmonella serotype Enteritidis accounted for the largest number of outbreaks, cases, and deaths; most of these outbreaks were attributed to eating undercooked, infected eggs. Chemical agents caused 14% of outbreaks and 2% of cases; parasites, 2% of outbreaks and 1% of cases; and viruses, 4% of outbreaks and 6% of cases. INTERPRETATION: The number of FBDOs reported per year did not change substantially during the first 4 years but declined in 1992 as a result of the revised definition of an outbreak. During this reporting period, S. Enteritidis continued to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality. In addition, multistate outbreaks caused by contaminated produce and outbreaks caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7 became more prominent. ACTIONS TAKEN: State and local public health departments investigate FBDOs. At the regional and national level, surveillance data provide an indication of the etiologic agents, vehicles of transmission, and contributing factors associated with FBDOs and help direct public health actions. ProCite Record Number: 2640Journal Short Form workform?3 Cliver, D. O.1966/Implications of food-borne infectious hepatitis159-165Public Health Reports812ProCite Record Number: 2660Journal Short Form workform?4 Cliver, D. O.1985%Vehicular transmission of hepatitis A235-292Public Health Review133-4ReviewProCite Record Number: 2670Journal Short Form workformG?5"Deng, M. Y. S. P. Day D. O. Cliver1994dDetection of hepatitis A virus in environmental samples by antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction 1927-1933&Applied and Environmental Microbiology606,The efficacy of the antigen-capture PCR (AC-PCR) method for the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in environmental samples was demonstrated. HAV was captured from a seeded liquid waste or a shellfish sample with homologous antibody and then heat denatured and subjected to reverse transcription and the PCR, all in the same tube. Subsequently, the AC-PCR products were analyzed by oligonucleotide probe hybridization in solution, agarose gel electrophoresis, and autoradiography. The AC-PCR detected as little as 0.053 PFU of cell culture-adapted HAV strain HM175/18f. The results of cDNA-RNA hybridization indicated that the particle/PFU ratio of this virus strain is approximately 79:1. Therefore, the detection limit of the AC-PCR was estimated to be four virus particles. No amplified products were observed when poliovirus 1, coxsackievirus A9, coxsackievirus B3, echovirus 6, reovirus 1, adenovirus type 40, human rotavirus type 1, and bovine enterovirus type 2 were tested, confirming the specificity of the assay. There were no differences between the nucleotide sequences of AC-PCR products of HAV strain HM175/18f and the sequences of wild-type HAV strain HM175 derived from molecularly cloned cDNA. Of 121 waste and shellfish samples tested by both plaque assays (PA) in cell cultures and the AC-PCR, 81 (67%) were positive and 31 (26%) were negative as determined by both methods, whereas 9 (7%) were positive as determined by the AC-PCR and negative as determined by the PA, and none were positive as determined by the PA and negative as determined by the AC-PCR. ProCite Record Number: 2700Journal Short Form workform |7-Tian, P. Engelbrektson, A. L. Mandrell, R. E.2008pSeasonal tracking of histo-blood group antigen expression and norovirus binding in oyster gastrointestinal cells1696-700 J Food Prot718A?9{Greenberg, H. B. J. Valdesuso R. H. Yolken E. Gangarosa W. Gary R. G. Wyatt T. Konno H. Suzuki R. M. Chanock A. Z. Kapikian1979BRole of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis564-568Journal of Infectious Diseases1395Twenty-five separate outbreaks of nonbacterial gastrointestinal illnesses were studied serologically for evidence of infection with the Norwalk virus and the rotaviruses that affect humans. Eight of 25 outbreaks appeared to be related to the Norwalk virus. In one of the 25 outbreaks, there was evidence of rotavirus infection. These observations suggest that the Norwalk virus or serologically related agents play an important role in epidemic nonbacterial gastroenteritis in adults and older children. ProCite Record Number: 2750Journal Short Form workformn?:FGrohmann, G. S. A. M. Murphy P. J. Christopher E. Auty H. B. Greenberg1981GNorwalk virus gastroenteritis in volunteers consuming depurated oysters219-228?Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 5925Following the widespread outbreaks of oyster-associated gastroenteritis which occurred throughout Australia in 1978, several programmes were introduced to minimise the occurrence of further outbreaks. One programme included the depuration (purification) of oysters and the use of human volunteers to test-consume samples from batches of depurated oysters before their sale to the public. Oysters from the Georges River and Brisbane Waters were test-consumed from December, 1978, to August, 1979. None of the volunteers was ill after consuming Brisbane Waters oysters but 52 reported ill after eating Georges River oysters. The predominant symptoms were nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea with an average incubation period of 42 hours. Recovery was usually complete in 36-48 hours. Of the 52 illnesses reported 31 (60%) occurred in two particular weeks ending July 1st and 22nd when rates of 18.3% and 7.8% were reported. The average illness rate for the remainder of the period under study was only 1%. Norwalk virus was found in 8 of 25 (32%) stools, and antibody increases demonstrated in seven of ten paired sera, giving an overall diagnostic rate for Norwalk infection of 37.0% for these two peak periods. Heavy rain preceded these two weeks in which the illnesses occurred. No evidence of Norwalk infection was found at any other time. These studies confirmed the epidemiological findings of the major outbreak of gastroenteritis in 1978, and showed that only Georges River oysters caused Norwalk virus infections and that depuration as carried out in 1979 was not entirely satisfactory. ProCite Record Number: 2760Journal Short Form workformb?=fKoff, R. S. G. F. Grady T. C. Chalmers J. W. Mosley B. L. Swartz the Boston Inter-hospital Liver Group1967qViral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III. Importance of exposure to shellfish in a nonepidemic period703-710New England Journal of Medicine27613ProCite Record Number: 2790Journal Short Form workform}??Rose, J. B. M. D. Sobsey1993TQuantitative risk assessment for viral contamination of shellfish and coastal waters 1043-1050Journal of Food Protection5612`(Original) Hepatitis, enteroviruses, volunteers, pathogens, infection, oysters, illness, viruses$Human pathogenic viruses have been detected. from approved shellfish harvesting waters based on the fecal coliform indicator. Until recently it was difficult to assess viral contamination and the potential impact on public health. Risk assessment is a valuable tool which can be used to estimate adverse effects associated with microbial hazards. This report describes the use of quantitative risk assessment for evaluating potential human health impacts associated with exposure to viral contamination of shellfish. The four fundamental steps used in a formal risk assessment are described within and include i) Hazard identification, ii) Dose-response determination, iii) Exposure assessment, and iv) Risk characterization. Dose-response models developed from human feeding studies were used to evaluate the risk of infection from contaminated shellfish. Of 58 pooled samples, 19% were found to be positive for viruses. Using an echovirus-12 probability model, the individual risk was determined for consumption of 60 g of raw shellfish. Individual risks ranged from 2.2 x 10(4) to 3.5 x 10(-2). These data suggest that individuals consuming raw shellfish from approved waters in the United States may have on the average a 1 in 100 chance of becoming infected with an enteric virus. Using the rotavirus model which represents a more infectious virus, the risk rose to 5 in 10. The potential for use of a risk assessment approach for developing priorities and strategies for control of disease is immense. Epidemiological data have demonstrated the significance of shellfish-associated viral disease and, although limited, appropriate virus occurrence data are available. Additional information on virus occurrence and exposure is needed, and then scientific risk assessment can be used to better assure the safety of seafood.ProCite Record Number: 2850Journal Short Form workform?@8United States Department of Health Education and Welfare1973,Common source outbreak of hepatitis A - Ohio86%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report27ProCite Record Number: 2860Journal Short Form workform?A@Wait, D. A. C. R. Hackney R. J. Carrick G. Lovelace M. D. Sobsey1983PEnteric bacterial and viral pathogens and indicator bacteria in hard shell clams493-496Journal of Food Protection46ProCite Record Number: 2870Journal Short Form workform?BgWhite, K. E. M. T. Osterholm J. A. Mariotti J. A. Korlath D. H. Lawrence T. L. Ristinen H. B. Greenberg1986NA foodborne outbreak of Norwalk virus: evidence for post-recovery transmission120-126 American Journal of Epidemiology1241JFrom November 10-16, 1982, 220 (57%) of 383 attendees at eight banquets for which food had been prepared at a single hotel restaurant and the employees of the hotel had onset of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. Epidemiologic investigation of the three largest banquets confirmed consumption of potato and fruit salads (banquet A), coleslaw (banquet B), and tossed salad (banquet C) to be significantly associated with illness. Between November 8-19, similar illness occurred in seven (54%) of 13 hotel kitchen employees. The foods implicated in banquets A and B were prepared by one salad worker during her acute illness and up to 48 hours following her recovery. A second salad worker prepared the implicated tossed salad for banquet C 24 hours following her recovery. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first foodborne outbreak investigation demonstrating Norwalk viral excretion and transmission by a food handler after recovery from illness and either person-to-person or vehicle-borne transmission between food handlers with subsequent transmission by more than one food handler to patrons. ProCite Record Number: 2890Journal Short Form workform?C Anonymous1994:Outbreak of tick-borne encephalitis, presumably milk-borne140-141Weekly Epidemiology Research6913ProCite Record Number: 2900Journal Short Form workform ?DKane, M.1995CPublic health control of hepatitis A: Memorandum from a WHO meeting15-20)Bulletin of the World Health Organization731.Hepatitis A virus infection is a significant cause of morbidity in many parts of the world, and hepatitis A vaccines will be important tools for its prevention and control, This Memorandum reviews the basic features of the disease and ifs epidemiology, and considers the measures which are available for control and prevention, including hepatitis A vaccine, The use of this vaccine should be adapted to specific epidemiological circumstances existing within a geographical region, with special attention to the cost-effectiveness of immunization programmes.ProCite Record Number: 2910Journal Short Form workform?E Berg, G. Ed.1978'Indicators of Viruses in Water and FoodAnn Arbor, MichiganAnn Arbor ScienceProCite Record Number: 2920Book Long Form workform?F*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1994/Viral hepatitis surveillance program, 1990-199219-34$Hepatitis Surveillance Report No. 55Atlanta Georgia*Centers for Disease Control and PreventionProCite Record Number: 2930Book Long Form workformD?G Cliver, D. O.1997Foodborne viruses!Fundamentals of Food Microbiology0Doyle, M. P. L. R. Beuchat T. J. Montville (Ed.)Washington D.C.!American Society for MicrobiologyProCite Record Number: 2940Book Long Form workform_G?HBCliver, D. O. R. D. Ellender G. S. Fout P. A. Shields M. D. Sobsey1992Foodborne viruses763-787BCompendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods,Vanderzant, S. C. D. F. Splittstoesser (Ed.)Washington, D.C."American Public Health Association3ProCite Record Number: 2960Book Long Form workformD?I/Council for Agricultural Science and Technology1994+Foodborne Pathogens: Risks and Consequences)Task Force Report No. 122, September 1994/Council for Agricultural Science and TechnologyAmes, IAProCite Record Number: 2970Book Long Form workform?LNew York Department of Health1989>A Review of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in New York State 19882Bureau of Community Sanitation and Food Protection Albany, NYProCite Record Number: 3000Book Long Form workform?M=Tang, Y. W. J. X. Wang Z. Y. Xu Y. F. Guo W. H. Qian J. X. Xu1991A serologically confirmed, case-control study, of a large outbreak of hepatitis A in China, associated with consumption of clams651-657Epidemiological Infection1073A matched and serologically confirmed case-control study was carried out to investigate the source of an outbreak of acute hepatitis involving 290,000 cases in the suburbs of Shanghai, in January 1988. A total of 132 patients with acute hepatitis from six different hospitals were chosen as cases and the same number of control patients without hepatitis were matched for gender, age, admission date and area of residence. Serum specimens from both case and control patients were detected for specific anti-hepatitis A (HA) IgM antibody and a questionnaire was used to investigate probable risk factors related to the outbreak. The positive rate of anti-HA IgM was 98.48% in the case group and only 0.76% in the control, indicating that the infection was caused by HA virus. The results revealed that the source and mode of transmission were due to the consumption of contaminated and inadequately cooked clams (Anadara subcrenata lischke). There was a highly positive dose-response relationship between the odds ratio of contracting HA and the quantity or frequency of clam consumption. The odds ratios of acquiring HA from clams were up to 62.4-63.4 by both group stratification and multiple unconditional logistic regression analyses. ProCite Record Number: 3010Journal Short Form workform?NARosenblum, L. S. I. R. Mirkin D. T. Allen S. Safford S. C. Hadler1990OA multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed lettuce 1075-1079!American Journal of Public Health809From February 1 through March 20, 1988, 202 cases of hepatitis A were reported in and around Jefferson County, Kentucky. The epidemic curve indicated a common-source exposure. However, there was no apparent single source of exposure from a restaurant, or community gathering; nor was there a geographic clustering by residence. Cases were mainly adults 20-59 years old (89 percent); 51 percent were female. A case-control study using neighborhood controls found that factors associated with hepatitis A were: having eaten downtown (odds ratio [OR] = 4.0) and having dined at any one of three restaurants (OR = 21.0). Case-control studies of patrons of two of these restaurants found that eating green salad was strongly associated with acquiring hepatitis A: OR = 11.6 and OR = 4.4. The three implicated restaurants accounted for 71 percent of the cases. All three restaurants were supplied by the same fresh produce distributor; however, investigation suggested that contamination most likely occurred prior to local distribution. This outbreak of hepatitis A is the first in the United States apparently associated with fresh produce contaminated before distribution to restaurants, and raises important public health issues regarding the regulation of fresh produce. ProCite Record Number: 3020Journal Short Form workform?OJMishu, B. S. C. Hadler V. A. Boaz R. H. Hutcheson J. M. Horan W. Schaffner1990>Foodborne hepatitis A: evidence that microwaving reduces risk?655-658Journal of Infectious Diseases1623During July 1988, 68 persons in Chattanooga, Tennessee, developed serologically confirmed hepatitis A. Between 15 June and 3 July, 93% of case-patients ate at a specific restaurant compared with only 3% of the local community. An intravenous drug user who worked as a cook was identified as the source. A case-control study was done to identify the vehicle of transmission. Case-patients were more likely than controls to have eaten hamburger buns and pickles, the only foods routinely handled after cooking. Of the restaurant patrons included in the study, 12 microwaved their food before consumption; none developed clinical illness despite eating large amounts of food handled after cooking. Sandwiches that were not microwaved were significantly associated with illness (odds ratio = 9.6; P less than .02). This epidemiologic evidence suggests that microwaves inactivate hepatitis A virus in food. ProCite Record Number: 3030Journal Short Form workformY?Q[Kobayashi, S. T. Morishita T. Yamashita K. Sakae O. Nishio T. Miyake Y. Ishihara S. Isomura1991}A large outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a small round structured virus among schoolchildren and teachers in Japan81-86Epidemiology and Infection1071In March 1989 a large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred simultaneously among schoolchildren and teachers at nine elementary schools in Toyota City, Japan. Illness was observed in 3236 (41.5%) of 7801 schoolchildren and 117 (39.4%) of 297 teachers. The main clinical symptoms were diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Gastroenteritis was significantly associated with the consumption of school lunch served by one particular lunch preparation centre. One food handler at the centre suffered from gastroenteritis during the outbreak. Small round structured virus (SRSV) was detected in 4 of 8 stool specimens from sick persons. The school lunch contaminated by the infected food handler is the most probable source of this outbreak due to SRSV. ProCite Record Number: 3050Journal Short Form workform ?RWorld Health Organization19914Gastroenteritis associated with shellfish in England2-3ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe30ProCite Record Number: 3060Journal Short Form workform?S Anonymous1991DOutbreak of diarrhoeal illness associated with coronovirus infection1ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health Weekly Report, Scotland2546ProCite Record Number: 3070Journal Short Form workformd?T.Zhou, Y. J. M. K. Estes X. Jiang T. G. Metcalf1991dConcentration and detection of hepatitis A virus and rotavirus from shellfish by hybridization tests 2963-2968&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5710<A modified polyethylene glycol precipitation method for concentration of virus followed by a new method to recover nucleic acid was used to detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) and rotavirus (SA11) in shellfish (oysters and hard-shell clams) by hybridization tests. Infectious virus, seeded into relatively large quantities of shellfish, was recovered consistently, with greater than 90% efficiency as measured by either in situ hybridization (HAV) or plaque assay (rotavirus SA11). Viral nucleic acid for dot blot hybridization assays was extracted and purified from virus-containing polyethylene glycol concentrates. Separation of shellfish polysaccharides from nucleic acid was necessary before viral RNA could be detected by dot blot hybridization. Removal of shellfish polysaccharides was accomplished by using the cationic detergent cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Use of CTAB reduced background interference with hybridization signals, which resulted in increased hybridization test sensitivity. After polysaccharide removal, dot blot hybridization assays could detect approximately 10(6) physical particles (corresponding to approximately 10(3) infectious particles) of HAV and 10(4) PFU of SA11 rotavirus present in 20-g samples of oyster and clam meats. These studies show continuing promise for the development of uniform methods to directly detect human viral pathogens in different types of shellfish. However, practical applications of such methods to detect noncultivatable human viral pathogens of public health interest will require additional improvements in test sensitivity. ProCite Record Number: 3080Journal Short Form workform?U7Jehl-Pietri, C. J. Dupont C. Herve D. Menard J. Munro J1991eOccurrence of faecal bacteria, Salmonella and antigens associated with hepatitis A virus in shellfish230-237;International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine1923@An investigation was carried out over a one year period to examine jointly the occurrence of faecal bacteria, salmonella and the presence of antigens associated with the hepatitis A virus (HAV) in oysters (Crassostrea gigas), mussels (Mytilus edulis, Mytilus galloprovincialis) and cockles (Cerastoderma edule), taken from 8 shellfish farming areas or natural beds along the French coast. For the faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS), statistical analysis of the 176 samples examined shows a statistically significant difference between sampling stations (F = 44.39 and F = 26.69 respectively, p less than 0.001): 4 of the 8 stations are more highly contaminated. Salmonella and antigens associated with HAV were detected in 5% and 1.7% respectively of the samples analysed. Frequency of isolation of salmonella is higher for the group of sampling stations where the mean levels of contamination by FC and FS are highest. The presence of HAV associated antigens was detected for the group of stations showing the lowest mean contamination levels. Taking all sample stations together, the percentage of isolation of salmonella differs significantly (chi 2 = 7.28, p less than 0.01) for the two classes of FC established on the basis of the threshold value (300 FC). There is no difference between the two classes of FS. For the HAV-associated antigens, detection percentages are similar for the two classes of results for FC and FS. Within each sampling station, considered independently, no particular correlation was found between the various viral and bacterial markers investigated. ProCite Record Number: 3090Journal Short Form workform?V6Martinez-Manzanares, E. M. A. Moriigo R. Cornax et al.1991tRelationship between classical indicators and several pathogenic microorganisms involved in shellfish-borne diseases711-717Journal of Food Protection54 9Quantitative relationships between classical indicators and the main pathogenic microorganisms involved in shellfish-borne diseases were established from shellfish samples (cockles, Cardium edule and striped venus, Chamelea gallina) collected from five sampling stations located at different depths in the estuary of Guadalhorce river (Malaga, Spain). F-ANOVA analyses applied to the variables: seasons, depth, and sampling stations, showed that a significant relationship could be established only between the season of the year and the concentrations of total anaerobic bacteria, coliphage, and Aeromonas hydrophila. Classical indicators present no significant correlation with the pathogenic microorganisms in shellfish samples, which questions the existence of a universal indicator of shellfish hygiene. However, from the lineal correlations between detection percentages of pathogens and the medians of the lognormal distribution (XX50) of the indicators, it can be deduced that the use of three indicators, Escherichia coli, fecal streptococci, or coliphages, is valid to establish the potential health hazard associated with the presence of Salmonella, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Staphylococcus aureus in shellfish samples.ProCite Record Number: 3100Journal Short Form workform cTt7=Mbithi, J. N. Springthorpe, V. S. Boulet, J. R. Sattar, S. A.1992lSurvival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces757-63J Clin Microbiol304Adult Hand/microbiology Handwashing Hepatitis A/microbiology/prevention & control/*transmission Hepatovirus/*isolation & purification Humans Pressure Surface PropertiesAprQThe survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV; strain HM175) on the hands of five volunteers was determined by depositing 10 microliters of fecally suspended virus on each fingerpad and eluting the inoculum after 0, 20, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min. The amount of virus recovered from each fingerpad at 0 min was approximately 6.0 x 10(4) PFU. At the end of 4 h, 16 to 30% of the initially recoverable virus remained detectable on the fingerpads. HAV inocula (10 microliters; approximately 1.0 x 10(4) PFU) placed on fingerpads or 1-cm-diameter metal disks were used to determine virus transfer to clean surfaces upon a 10-s contact at a pressure of nearly 0.2 kg/cm2. When the inoculum was dried for 20 min, virus transfer from fingerpad to fingerpad, fingerpad to disk, and disk to fingerpad ranged from 2,667 to 3,484 PFU, while 0 to 50 PFU could be transferred after 4 h of drying. Elevation of the contact pressure alone from 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2 resulted in an approximately t?XILytle, C. D. W. Truscott A. P. Budacz L. Venegas L. B. Routson W. H. Cyr 1991FImportant factors for testing barrier materials with surrogate viruses 2549-2554&Applied and Environmental Microbiology579This study evaluated bacteriophages phi X174, T7, PRD1, and phi 6 as possible surrogates for pathogenic human viruses to challenge barrier materials and demonstrated some important factors for their use. Chemical incompatibility with test material was demonstrated when lipid-enveloped phi 6 was inactivated by an aqueous eluate of vinyl gloves, but 0.5% calf serum protected phi 6 from the eluate. Low concentrations (2%) of calf serum also prevented the exaggerated binding of the bacteriophages to filters. Recovery of viruses from surfaces decreased with increasing time before recovery. Penetration through punctures displayed different types of kinetics. The combined data indicate that (i) some bacteriophages may serve as surrogate viruses, (ii) experimental conditions determine whether a particular virus is appropriate as a challenge, and (iii) phi X174 is an excellent choice as a surrogate virus to test barrier materials. The data further indicate that before barrier materials are challenged with viruses, adequate tests should be performed to ensure that the virus is compatible with the test material and test conditions, so that meaningful data will result. ProCite Record Number: 3120Journal Short Form workformn?Y7Pinto, R. M. F. X. Abad R. M. Roca J. M. Riera A. Bosch1991gThe use of bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis as indicators of the efficiency of virucidal products61-65FEMS Microbiology Letters661LThe potential use of bacteriophage B40-8 of Bacteroides fragilis for the evaluation of the virucidal activity of antiseptics or disinfectants was investigated. The antiviral activity of two antiseptics and two disinfectants was evaluated according to a standard guideline. The effect of the virucidal agents was assessed on (i) viruses usually spread by direct contact with surfaces with contaminated secretions, i.e. herpes virus 1 and 2, and vaccinia virus, and (ii) viruses transmitted by the fecal-oral route, i.e. hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, adenovirus and rotavirus. The survival of B40-8 always equalled or exceeded that of the animal viruses tested. Our data suggest the use of bacteriophage B40-8 to complement the information furnished by some standardized methods in ascertaining the antiviral activity of virucidal preparations. ProCite Record Number: 3130Journal Short Form workformS?ZTjotta, E. O. Hungnes B. Grinde1991SSurvival of HIV-1 activity afterdisinfection, temperature and pH changes, or drying223-227Journal of Medical Virology354YA recently developed assay for measuring infectious HIV-1 particles was used to determine the stability of the virus under various storage conditions as well as the effect of commonly used disinfectants. At the optimum pH of 7.1 the half life of the virus ranged from approx. twenty-four hours at 37 degrees C to no significant loss over 6 months at -75 degrees C. Drying the virus on a glass surface or freezing caused a 5-12 fold and 4-5 fold decrease of activity, respectively. The dried preparations, however, were about as stable as when stored in a buffered solution. A solution of iodine and detergent (2% Jodopax) was the only disinfectant examined which removed all detectable HIV-1 activity. Isopropanol and ethanol were more potent than acetone; however, all three solvents left some viable particles after a 30 min treatment with 70% solutions. ProCite Record Number: 3140Journal Short Form workform?[ Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe1991]Survival and disinfectant inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: a critical review430-447Reviews of Infectious Diseases133ReviewThe possibility of contracting acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) through accidental or inapparent parenteral exposure to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has raised concerns among recipients of blood products, health-care professionals, and others who have contact either with HIV or with AIDS patients. Along with these concerns has come an increasing interest in the physical and chemical methods that may be used to inactivate HIV in blood products and other contaminated fluids as well as on contaminated objects and surfaces. This review critically examines the available information on the survival of HIV and the methods used for its inactivation, particularly those that rely on chemical disinfection. Although the risk of acquiring HIV from contaminated materials may be slight compared with that of acquiring other blood-borne pathogens, such as hepatitis B virus, the effectiveness of disinfectants used under clinical conditions may have been overestimated. ProCite Record Number: 3150Journal Short Form workform?\"Lemon, S. M. E. Amphlett D. Sangar1991lProtease digestion of hepatitis A virus: disparate effects on capsid proteins, antigenicity, and infectivity 5636-5640Journal of Virology6510High concentrations of either trypsin or chymotrypsin caused nearly complete cleavage of capsid protein VP2 of hepatitis A virus but did not significantly reduce the infectivity, thermostability, or antigenicity of the virus. Chymotrypsin also had a lesser effect on VP1. These findings indicate the presence of a protease-accessible VP2 surface site which neither contributes significantly to the dominant antigenic site nor plays a role in the attachment of the virus to putative cell receptors. ProCite Record Number: 3160Journal Short Form workform?])House, C. J. A. House R. J. Yedloutschnig1991AInactivation of viral agents in bovine serum by gamma irradiation737-740 Canadian Journal of Microbiology3610Cell culture origin or suckling mouse brain origin viruses of Akabane disease, Aino, bovine ephemeral fever, swine vesicular disease, hog cholera, bluetongue, and minute virus of mice were each suspended in bovine serum. Aliquots (1 mL) were exposed to various doses of gamma radiation from a 60Co source while at -68 degrees C. Aliquots (100-mL) of serum from a steer experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus were similarly irradiated. The samples were assayed for infectivity in cell culture systems before and after irradiation, and the data points were analyzed by linear regression. The irradiation doses (in megarads) necessary to inactivate one log10 of viral infectivity (D10) was calculated for each virus. D10 is otherwise known as the slope of the regression line. The r2 value, a measure of association with 1.0 = perfect fit, was also calculated for each regression line. The values (D10, r2) for each virus were as follows: Akabane, 0.25, 0.998; Aino, 0.35, 0.997; bovine ephemeral fever, 0.29, 0.961; swine vesicular disease, 0.50, 0.969; foot-and-mouth disease, 0.53, 0.978; hog cholera, 0.55, 0.974; bluetongue, 0.83, 0.958; and minute virus of mice, 1.07, 0.935.ProCite Record Number: 3170Journal Short Form workformT?^TTaguchi, F. Y. Tamai K. Uchida R. Kitajima H. Kojima T. Kawaguchi Y. Ohtani S. Miura1991YProposal for a procedure for complete inactivation of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent297-301Archive of Virology1193-4$We have examined complete inactivation conditions on brain homogenates from mice affected with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent, and recommend for routine use a reliable procedure first treating the affected materials with 1 N NaOH for 60 min and then autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 30 min. ProCite Record Number: 3180Journal Short Form workform?_#Tateishi, J. T. Tashima T. Kitamoto1991QPractical methods for chemical inactivation of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathogen163-166Microbiology and Immunology352Chemical inactivation of pathogen of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was examined using the mouse-adapted CJD strain. A high concentration of formic acid, guanidine compounds, trichloroacetate and phenol prevented CJD transmission. NaOH between 0.25 and 2 N lengthened the incubation periods. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in a concentration between 1 and 3% did not alter incubation at room temperature but did completely block the transmission after boiling for 3 min in 3% SDS. This method is recommended for practical disinfection. ProCite Record Number: 3190Journal Short Form workform?`0Martinez-Manzanares, E. F. Egea D. Castro et al.1991Accumulation and depuration of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by the bivalve mollusc, Chamelea gallina L, under controlled laboratory conditions612-618Journal of Food Protection548[The comparative accumulation and depuration processes for several microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and MS-2 coliphage) by the striped venus, Chamelea gallina, under controlled laboratory conditions were studied. Microorganisms accumulated rapidly in bivalves during the first 6 h, with accumulation rates between 3.2 to 360.5 organisms/h depending on the type of microorganism. The relative patterns and rates of elimination of the microorganisms suggest that they are eliminated from shellfish in two different ways. One is of a mechanical nature that results in microbial elimination during the first 12 h. The other elimination mechanism depends upon the microbial species and their accumulated number. All microorganisms tested were eliminated completely by the molluscs after 3 d of depuration, except MS-2 bacteriophages. Results indicate that MS-2 coliphages may be a more reliable indicator of the microbial depuration efficiency by the shellfish under laboratory conditions than E. coli.ProCite Record Number: 3200Journal Short Form workform?a7Mallett, J. C. L. E. Beghian T. G. Metcalf J. D. Kaylor1991EPotential of irradiation technology for improved shellfish sanitation231-245Journal of Food Safety114Shellfish, food-irradiation, food-sanitation, consumer-protection, rotavirus, organoleptic-traits, hepatitis-a-virus, food-microbiologyWIonizing radiation is shown capable of serving as an effective sanitizing treatment improving the sanitary quality of shellfish and providing an increased margin of safety for shellfish consumers. 60Co irradiation of the hard-shelled clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, and the oyster, Crassostrea virginica, significantly reduced virus carriage numbers without unduly affecting shellfish survival rates or desirable organoleptic qualities. A D10 value of 2 kGy was determined for depletion of hepatitis A virus in clams and oysters as measured by in situ hybridization fluorescent foci and cytopathology enumeration methods. A D10 value of 2.4 kGy was determined for depletion of rotavirus SA11 in clams and oysters as measured by a plaque forming unit enumeration method. Study results showed ionizing radiation capable of providing an extra, highly effective safeguard of shellfish sanitary quality when combined with traditional depuration treatment. Data drawn from other studies is introduced which shows D10 values as low as 1.0 kGy effectively eliminate Vibrio cholerae, and V. parahemolyticus, from shellfish.ProCite Record Number: 3210Journal Short Form workform?b3Herwaldt, B. L. G.F. Craun S.L. Stokes D.D. Juranek1991'Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1989-19901-21%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report403For the 2-year period 1989-1990, 16 states reported 26 outbreaks due to water intended for drinking; an estimated total of 4,288 persons became ill in these outbreaks. Giardia lamblia was implicated as the etiologic agent for seven of the 12 outbreaks in which an agent was identified. The outbreaks of giardiasis were all associated with ingestion of unfiltered surface water or surface-influenced groundwater. An outbreak with four deaths was attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, the only bacterial pathogen implicated in any of the outbreak investigations. An outbreak of remitting, relapsing diarrhea was associated with cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)-like bodies, whose role in causing diarrheal illness is being studied. Two outbreaks due to hepatitis A and one due to a Norwalk-like agent were associated with use of well water. Eighteen states reported a total of 30 outbreaks due to the use of recreational water, which resulted in illness for an estimated total of 1,062 persons. These 30 reports comprised 13 outbreaks of whirlpool- or hot tub-associated Pseudomonas folliculitis; 13 outbreaks of swimming-associated gastroenteritis, including five outbreaks of shigellosis; one outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a swimming pool; and three cases of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria. The national surveillance of outbreaks of waterborne diseases, which has proceeded for 2 decades, continues to be a useful means for characterizing the epidemiology of waterborne diseases. ProCite Record Number: 3220Journal Short Form workformx?ciLawson, H. W. M. M. Braun R. I. M. Glass S. E. Stine S. S. Monroe H. K. Atrash L. E. Lee S. J. Englender 1991Waterborne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis at a southwest US resort: role of geological formations in contamination of well water 1200-1204Lancet3378751 From April 17 to May 1, 1989, gastroenteritis developed in about 900 people during a visit to a new resort in Arizona, USA. Of 240 guests surveyed, 110 had a gastrointestinal illness that was significantly associated with the drinking of tap water from the resort's well (relative risk = 16.1, 95% confidence interval 14.5 to 17.8) and this risk increased significantly with the number of glasses of water consumed (p less than 0.005). Three of seven paired sera tested for antibodies to the Norwalk agent had a four-fold or greater rise in titre. Water contaminated with faecal coliforms was traced back to the deep water well, which remained contaminated even after prolonged pumping. Effluent from the resort's sewage treatment facility seeped through fractures in the subsurface rock (with little filtration) directly into the resort's deep well. Although the latest technology was used to design the resort's water and sewage treatment plants, the region's unique geological conditions posed unexpected problems that may trouble developers faced with similar subsurface geological formations and arid climatic conditions in many parts of the world. In these areas, novel solutions are needed to provide adequate facilities for the treatment of sewage and supply of pure drinking water. ProCite Record Number: 3230Journal Short Form workform?dCannon, R. O. J. R. Poliner R. B. Hirschhorn D. C. Rodeheaver P. S. Silverman E. A. Brown G. H. Talbot S. E. Stine S. S. Monroe D. T. Dennis R. I. Glass1991dA multistate outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of commercial ice860-863Journal of Infectious Diseases164 5Between 19 and 27 September 1987, a cluster of outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness occurred among persons who had attended a museum fund-raiser in Wilmington, Delaware and an intercollegiate football game in Philadelphia. A survey of four groups attending these events showed that 31% (191/614) became ill. Altogether, those who consumed ice were 12 times more likely to experience either vomiting or diarrhea than those who did not (attack rate, 55% vs. 4%, P less than .001). Ice consumed at the events was traced to a manufacturer in southeastern Pennsylvania whose wells had been contaminated when flooded by a nearby creek after a torrential rainfall on 8 September. Of 19 affected persons tested within 1 week of exposure, 13 (68%) had at least a fourfold rise in antibody titer to the Norwalk virus. This report, the first to document an association of contaminated commercial ice with Norwalk gastroenteritis should prompt reassessment of government regulation of the production and distribution of ice. ProCite Record Number: 3240Journal Short Form workform?e-Ansari, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Sattar1991aSurvival and vehicular spread of human rotaviruses: possible relation to seasonality of outbreaks448-461Reviews of Infectious Diseases133ReviewIn developing countries rotavirus infections account for nearly 6% of all diarrheal episodes and for 20% of diarrhea-associated deaths of young children. Even in industrialized countries rotavirus diarrhea in the young is among the leading causes of hospitalization. In temperate regions institutional outbreaks of the disease occur mainly in cold dry weather, whereas in tropical settings the seasonality is less well defined. Waterborne outbreaks of rotavirus gastroenteritis have been recorded; air, hands, fomities, and food may also act as vehicles for this infection. Rotaviruses can survive for weeks in potable and recreational waters and for at least 4 hours on human hands. In air and on nonporous inanimate surfaces, the survival of rotaviruses is favored by a relative humidity of less than or equal to 50% and viral infectivity can be retained for several days. Rotaviruses are relatively resistant to commonly used hard-surface disinfectants and hygienic hand-wash agents. ProCite Record Number: 3250Journal Short Form workform?f+Richardson, K. J. M. H. Stewart R. L. Wolfe1991:Application of gene probe technology to the water industry71-81+Journal of American Water Works Association83ProCite Record Number: 3260Journal Short Form workform?g)Margolin, A. B. M. J. Hewlett C. P. Gerba1991VThe application of a poliovirus cDNA probe for the detection of enteroviruses in water277-280Water Science and Technology24 not availableProCite Record Number: 3270Journal Short Form workform?hDeleon, R. C. P. Gerba19910Detection of rotaviruses in water by gene probes281-284Water Science and Technology242ProCite Record Number: 3280Journal Short Form workform]?iOFarrah, S. R. D. R. Preston G. A. Toranzos M. Girard G. A. Erdos V. Vasuhdivan 1991OUse of modified diatomaceous earth for removal and recovery of viruses in water 2502-2506&Applied and Environmental Microbiology579*Diatomaceous earth was modified by in situ precipitation of metallic hydroxides. Modification decreased the negative charge on the diatomaceous earth and increased its ability to adsorb viruses in water. Electrostatic interactions were more important than hydrophobic interactions in virus adsorption to modified diatomaceous earth. Filters containing diatomaceous earth modified by in situ precipitation of a combination of ferric chloride and aluminum chloride adsorbed greater than 80% of enteroviruses (poliovirus 1, echovirus 5, and coxsackievirus B5) and coliphage MS2 present in tap water at ambient pH (7.8 to 8.3), even after filtration of 100 liters of tap water. Viruses adsorbed to the filters could be recovered by mixing the modified diatomaceous earth with 3% beef extract plus 1 M NaCl (pH 9). ProCite Record Number: 3290Journal Short Form workforma?j'Gajardo, R. J. M. Dez J. Jofre A. Bosch1991|Adsorption-elution with negatively and positively-charged glass powder for the concentration of hepatitis A virus from water345-351Journal of Virological Methods312-31Two methods based on virus adsorption and elution from glass powder were developed for the concentration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) from large volumes of water. The cytopathogenic pHM-175 strain of HAV was used to test these procedures in tap water, fresh water, sea water and raw sewage. HAV was quantitated by a plaque assay in the FRhK-4 cell line. HAV was concentrated by glass powder adsorption-elution from 20-liter samples with satisfactory efficiencies in all types of water: 100% for tap water, 80% for freshwater, 75% for sea water and 61% for sewage. The charge of glass powder was modified by polyethylenimine treatment to avoid the need to pretreat the sample. Concentration efficiencies of HAV in 20-1 samples through adsorption to and elution from positively-charged glass powder were 100% for tap water, 94% for sea water, and 61% for fresh water and sewage. Both methods were used for the detection of wild-type HAV in raw sewage. Wild-type HAV in concentrated sewage samples was detected by molecular hybridization with a digoxigenin-labelled cDNA probe. ProCite Record Number: 3300Journal Short Form workform4?k{Havelaar, A. H. M. Butler S. R. Farrah J. Jofre E. Marques A. Ketratanakul M. T. Martins S. Ohgakis M. D. Sobsey U. Zaiss 19918Bacteriophages as model viruses in water quality control529-545Water Research255ReviewProCite Record Number: 3310Journal Short Form workform ?m Hurst, C. J.1991pPresence of enteric viruses in freshwater and their removal by the conventional drinking water treatment process113-119)Bulletin of the World Health Organization691ReviewA review of results published in English or French between 1980 and 1990 was carried out to determine the levels of indigenous human enteric viruses in untreated surface and subsurface freshwaters, as well as in drinking water that had undergone the complete conventional treatment process. For this purpose, the conventional treatment process was defined as an operation that included coagulation followed by sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. Also assessed was the stepwise efficiency of the conventional treatment process, as practised at full-scale facilities, for removing indigenous viruses from naturally occurring freshwaters. A list was compiled of statistical correlations relating to the occurrence of indigenous viruses in water. ProCite Record Number: 3330Journal Short Form workform;?n Payment, P.1991fFate of human enteric viruses, coliphages, and Clostridium perfringens during drinking-water treatment154-157 Canadian Journal of Microbiology372=The elimination of human enteric viruses, coliphages, and Clostridium perfringens was studied during a conventional complete drinking-water treatment process. The respective concentrations (geometric mean) of these microorganisms in 100-L samples of river water were, respectively, as follows: viruses, 79 mpniu (most probable number of infectious units) per 100 L, coliphages, 6565 pfu (plaque-forming units) per 100 L. and clostridia, 11,349 cfu (colony-forming units) per 100 L. After predisinfection, flocculation with alum, and settling, human enteric viruses were not detected in any of the 100-L samples (less than 4 mpniu/100 L), but coliphages were detected in 7 of 14 samples and clostridia in 15 of 16 samples. In filtered water samples, human enteric viruses were detected in 2 of 31 samples, coliphages in 10 of 33, and clostridia in 17 of 33. Finished water was free of human enteric viruses (0/162 samples), but coliphages were detected in one sample (1.5 pfu/100 L) and clostridia in three, at 1.0, 4.1, and 7.0 cfu/100 L. It thus appears that coliphages and clostridia, which are present in larger numbers than viruses in river water and which may have similar resistance to drinking-water treatments, may be useful for estimating the level of treatment attained when large volumes of water (1000 L or greater) are sampled. ProCite Record Number: 3340Journal Short Form workform5?oFinch, G. R. N. Fairbairn1991mComparatie inactivation of poliovirus type 3 and MS2 coliphage in demand-free phosphate buffer by using ozone 3121-3126&Applied and Environmental Microbiology571MS2 coliphage (ATCC 15597-B1) has been proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a surrogate for enteric viruses to determine the engineering requirements of chemical disinfection systems on the basis of previous experience with chlorine. The objective of this study was to determine whether MS2 coliphage was a suitable indicator for the inactivation of enteric viruses when ozone disinfection systems were used. Bench-scale experiments were conducted in 2-liter-batch shrinking reactors containing ozone demand-free 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) at 22 degrees C. Ozone was added as a side stream from a concentrated stock solution. It was found that an ozone residual of less than 40 micrograms/liter at the end of 20 s inactivated greater than 99.99% of MS2 coliphage in the demand-free buffer. When MS2 was compared directly with poliovirus type 3 in paired experiments, 1.6 log units more inactivation was observed with MS2 coliphage than with poliovirus type 3. It was concluded that the use of MS2 coliphage as a surrogate organism for studies of enteric virus with ozone disinfection systems overestimated the inactivation of enteric viruses. It is recommended that the regulatory agencies evaluate their recommendations for using MS2 coliphage as an indicator of enteric viruses. ProCite Record Number: 3350Journal Short Form workform?p0Vaughn, J. M. Y. S. Chen J. F. Novotny D. Strout1991BEffects of ozone treatment on the infectivity of hepatitis A virus557-560 Canadian Journal of Microbiology368The inactivation of a large-focus-forming variant of hepatitis A virus (HM-175) by ozone was investigated. Experiments using mainly single-particle virus preparations suspended in phosphate-carbonate buffer were conducted over a range of pH levels (6-8) at 4 degrees C. Viral enumerations involved the use of a radioimmunofocus assay. While some tolerance to lower (i.e., 0.1-0.5 mg/L) ozone residuals was noted, the exposure of virus particles to ozone concentrations of 1 mg/L or greater at all pH levels resulted in their complete (5 log) inactivation within 60 s. The pH-related effects that were observed were not considered to be significant.ProCite Record Number: 3360Journal Short Form workform?qLSmirnov, Y. A. S. P. Kapitulets N. N. Amitina V. A. Ginevskaya N. V. Kaverin1991%Effect of UV-irradiation on rotavirus1-6ACTA Virologica351The effect of UV-irradiation on SAll rotavirus infectivity was followed. The time course of infectivity inactivation in general showed an one-hit pattern. Two basic effects of UV-irradiation on virus particles were investigated: the phenomenon of RNA-protein linkages and the formation of uracil dimers. To determine the number of uridine dimers, 3H-uridine labelled purified rotavirus was exposed to UV-irradiation, subsequently the RNA was extracted and analysed by ascending paper chromatography. Formation of photodimers was found to be an important mechanism of rotavirus inactivation at conventional UV-irradiation; the RNA-protein linkages were registered at high irradiation doses only. ProCite Record Number: 3370Journal Short Form workform5?r4Yahya, M. T. T. M. Straub C. P. Gerba A. B. Margolin1991hInactivation of bacteriophage MS-2 and poliovirus in copper, galvanized and plastic domestic water pipes76-866International Journal of Environmental Health Research1ProCite Record Number: 3380Journal Short Form workform?s West, P. A.1991MHuman pathogenic viruses and parasites: emerging pathogens in the water cycle 107S-114S Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Ser.20 Supplement1ProCite Record Number: 3390Journal Short Form workform?tHara, S. K. Terauchi I. Koike1991iAbundance of viruses in marine waters: assessment by epifluorescence and transmission electron microscopy 2731-2734&Applied and Environmental Microbiology57ProCite Record Number: 3400Journal Short Form workform?u"Paul, J. H. S. C. Jiang J. B. Rose1991^Concentration of viruses and dissolved DNA from aquatic environments by vortex flow filtration 2197-2204(Applied and Environmental Microbiology578Vortex flow filtration (VFF) was used to concentrate viruses and dissolved DNA from freshwater and seawater samples taken in Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas Bank. Recoveries of T2 phage and calf thymus DNA added to artificial seawater and concentrated by VFF were 72.8 and 80%, respectively. Virus concentrations determined by transmission electron microscopy of VFF-concentrated samples ranged from 3.4 x 10(7)/ml for a eutrophic Tampa Bay sample to 2.4 x 10(5) for an oligotrophic oceanic surface sample from the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Viruslike particles were also observed in a sample taken from a depth of 1,500 m in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean. Filtration of samples through Nuclepore or Durapore filters (pore size, 0.2 micron) prior to VFF reduced phage counts by an average of two-thirds. Measurement of dissolved-DNA content by Hoechst 33258 fluorescence in environmental samples concentrated by VFF yielded values only ca. 35% of those obtained for samples concentrated by ethanol precipitation (the standard dissolved-DNA method). However, ethanol precipitation of VFF-concentrated extracts resulted in an increase in measurable DNA, reaching 80% of the value obtained by the standard method. These results indicate that a portion of the naturally occurring dissolved DNA is in a form inaccessible to nucleases and Hoechst stain, perhaps bound to protein or other polymeric material, and is released upon ethanol precipitation. Viral DNA contents estimated from viral counts averaged only 3.7% (range, 0.9 to 12.3%) of the total dissolved DNA for samples from freshwater, estuarine, and offshore oligotrophic environments. ProCite Record Number: 3410Journal Short Form workform?v?Cornax, R. M. A. Moriigo M. C. Balebona D. Castro J. J. Borrego1991_Significance of several bacteriophage groups as indicators of sewage pollution in marine waters673-678Water Research256ProCite Record Number: 3420Journal Short Form workformq?w)Powelson, D. K. J. R. Simpson C. P. Gerba1991@Effects of organic matter on virus transport in unsaturated flow 2192-2196&Applied and Environmental Microbiology578sThe effects of natural humic material and sewage sludge organic matter (SSOM) derived from primary treated sewage sludge on virus transport by unsaturated flow through soil columns were evaluated. Bacteriophage MS-2 was applied to loamy fine sand columns 0.052 m in diameter and 1.05 m long. Virus concentrations in the influent and effluent were measured daily for 7 to 9 days. In the first experiment, virus transport through two fresh soil columns was compared with that through a column previously leached with more than four pore volumes (T) of well water. The soil water organic matter concentrations in the leachate of the fresh soil declined with time. Relative virus concentrations (C/Co) from one fresh soil column reached 0.82 in 0.9 T and then declined to 0.51 by 2.1 T. The other fresh soil column reached and maintained a steady-state relative virus concentration [(C/Co)s] of 0.47 from 1.5 to 2.5 T. The leached column reached and maintained a (C/Co)s of 0.05. Concentrations measured at 0.2-, 0.4-, 0.8-, and 1.05-m depths indicated that most virus particles were removed in the surface 0.2 m. In the second experiment, one leached column was pretreated with SSOM derived from primary treated sewage sludge and the other leached column was untreated. SSOM concentrations declined with depth. A suspension of virus and SSOM in well water was applied to both columns. Although the (C/Co)s values were similar (0.41 for the pretreated column and 0.47 for the untreated column), breakthrough was delayed for the untreated column. Both natural humic material and sewage sludge-derived SSOM increased the unsaturated-flow transport of MS-2. ProCite Record Number: 3430Journal Short Form workform?x%Ross, B. C. D. A. Anderson I. D. Gust1991+Hepatitis A virus and hepatitis A infection209-253Advances in Virus Research39ReviewProCite Record Number: 3440Journal Short Form workform?yVranckx, R. L. Muylle1991PHepatitis A virus antibodies in Belgium: relationship between prevalence and age364-366 Infection18ProCite Record Number: 3450Journal Short Form workform?zHGreen, M. S. D. Cohen R. Slepon R. Handsher Y. Zaaide L. Rannon Y. Danon1991Sociodemographic correlates of neutralizing poliovirus and hepatitis A virus antibodies as markers of different modes of acquiring immunity 1270-1271!American Journal of Public Health8010sThe prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of antibodies against poliovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were compared in a random sample of 457 military recruits in Israel inducted during 1987. Lower socioeconomic status (SES) was associated with a higher prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies (67.3 vs 32.5 percent), whereas the reverse was true for type 1 poliovirus (78.4 vs 89.5 percent). While the high prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies observed in the lower SES groups reflects considerable natural exposure to enteroviruses, immunity against poliovirus appears to be determined primarily by compliance with vaccination. ProCite Record Number: 3460Journal Short Form workform?{DGirond, S. J. M. Crance H. Van Cuyck-Gandre J. Renaudet R. Deloince 1991RAntiviral activity of carrageenan on hepatitis A virus replication in cell culture261-270Research in Virology1424Sulphated polysaccharides such as iota-, lambda- and kappa-carrageenans showed a potent inhibitory effect on the replication of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in the human hepatoma cell line PLC/PRF/5. No cytotoxic effects were detected with concentrations of carrageenans up to 200 micrograms/ml. The selectivity indices of these substances, calculated as the ratio of the dose that reduced the number of viable cells to 50% (CD50) to the effective dose that inhibited 50% of viral antigen expression (ED50), were greater than 400 with iota-carrageenan, greater than 222 with lambda-carrageenan and greater than 10 with kappa-carrageenan. The selectivity index of ribavirin (reference substance) was only 5. The 3 types of carrageenans resulted in concentration-dependent reduction of HAV-antigen expression and HAV infectivity. lota-and lambda-carrageenan emerged, from the present study, as promising candidates for chemotherapy of acute hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 3470Journal Short Form workform?|8Chernesky, M. A. J. Crawford S. Castriciano J. B. Mahony1991QThe diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis A or B by microparticle enzyme immunoassay291-296Journal of Virological Methods343The traditional approach to the diagnosis of viral hepatitis has been to collect a serum sample and to test it for the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), IgM to the core of HBV (anti-HBc IgM) and IgM to HAV (anti-HAV IgM) by solid phase radio- or enzyme immunoassays. Microparticle enzyme immunoassay technology (IMx-Abbott Laboratories) has been introduced as an automated carousel system for the detection of these markers. A side-by-side, blinded comparison of IMx to current IA was performed for HBsAg on 659 specimens submitted from March to July 1990, of which 72 (10.8%) were positive by AUSRIA (Abbott RIA for HBsAg) and 2 of these were discordant in IMx. Both were near the cutoff and by confirmatory testing one was positive and the other negative. Forty three percent (25/58) of frozen stored sera tested for anti-HBc IgM, by IMx, were positive by EIA (Corzyme M). One specimen near the cutoff was negative by EIA but weakly positive by IMx. Anti-HAV IgM was found in 21.8% (46/211) of sera with 100% correlation by IMx. Thus IMx had the following percent sensitivies and specificities: HBsAg; 98.6, 99.9; anti-HBc IgM; 100, 99.9; anti-HAV IgM; 100, 100. The test set-up times for the 3 markers in the IMx were similar to the RIA and EIA. The turnover time was 45 min for a full IMx carousel compared to: AUSRIA-short incubation (4 h), or long incubation (14 h); Corzyme M-short (4.75 h) or long (20 h); anti-HAV IgM (23 h). ProCite Record Number: 3470Journal Short Form workform?}Siegl, G. S. M. Lemon19902Recent advances in hepatitis A vaccine development75-92Virus Research172ReviewProCite Record Number: 3480Journal Short Form workform?~ Krah, D. L.1991WA simplified multiwell plate assay for the measurement of hepatitis A virus infectivity223-227 Biologicals193A standardized multiwell plate assay (MWPA) was developed to provide a simple in situ measurement of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infectivity titers. Following attachment (4 h, 35 degrees C) of serial 10-fold dilutions of HAV strain CR326 F (variant F') to confluent MRC-5 monolayers in 24-well plates, cultures were overlaid with maintenance medium and incubated for 35 days at 35 degrees C with weekly medium replacement. Cells were fixed with 90% acetone and HAV antigen was quantitated by reaction with a radio-iodinated anti-HAV serum. Measurement of virus infectivity was based on the amounts of specifically bound and eluted radiolabelled antibody. Virus titers (50% tissue culture infectious doses/ml, TCID50/ml) were calculated using the method of Reed & Muench (Am J Hyg. 1938; 27: 493-497), with wells producing cpm values greater than 2.1-times that of uninoculated controls considered positive. The use of a virus standard provided an estimate of the test variability (+/- 5% in Log10 TCID50 units). The MWPA offers a significant savings in time and reagents, and is proposed as a standard method for the simple and reliable measurement of the potency of HAV vaccine preparations. ProCite Record Number: 3480Journal Short Form workform?Reyes, G. R. B. M. Baroudy1991WMolecular biology of non-A, non-B hepatitis agents: hepatitis C and hepatitis E viruses57-102Advances in Virus Research40ReviewProCite Record Number: 3490Journal Short Form workform?[Midthun, K. E. Ellerbeck K. Gershman G. Calandra D. Krah M. McCaughtry D. Nalin P. Provost 1991cSafety and immunogenicity of a live attenuated hepatitis A virus vaccine in seronegative volunteers735-739Journal of Infectious Diseases1634Seronegative adults were enrolled in a dose-escalating study of a live attenuated hepatitis A virus (HAV) vaccine that was prepared from the F' variant of HAV strain CR326F. They were injected subcutaneously with 10(4.1), 10(5.2), 10(6.1), or 10(7.3) TCID 50 of HAV vaccine (n = 40) or with placebo (n = 12) and were followed for 6 months. None of the vaccine recipients developed significant systemic reactions or aminotransferase elevations. HAV was not isolated in cell culture from any postvaccination serum or stool specimen tested. Antibody to HAV was detected by modifications of HAV antibody assays (HAVAB or HAVAB-M) in 20%, 40%, 60%, and 100% of the recipients of each vaccine dose, in ascending order. Neutralizing antibody was present in all 10(7.3) TCID50 recipients tested at 3 and 6 months after vaccination. This live attenuated HAV vaccine was well tolerated and highly immunogenic at a dose of 10(7.3) TCID50. ProCite Record Number: 3490Journal Short Form workform?OStapleton, J. T. D. K. Lange J. W. LeDuc L. N. Binn R. W. Jansen S. M. Lemonet 1991=The role of secretory immunity in hepatitis A virus infection7-11Journal of Infectious Diseases1631Because the role of intestinal immunity remains uncertain in hepatitis A, samples of feces and saliva from infected primates and humans were tested for virus neutralizing activity. Only two of eight owl monkeys infected by the intragastric route developed neutralizing antibody detectable in extracts of feces collected up to 88 days after viral challenge, although serum neutralizing antibody was present in all monkeys by day 33. Similarly, neutralizing antibody was detected in fecal extracts from none of three experimentally infected human volunteers and only 1 of 15 naturally infected humans. The single positive human specimen contained occult blood. Only 2 of 19 saliva samples from naturally infected humans had significant viral neutralizing activity. In contrast, neutralizing antibody to type 2 poliovirus was present in most human fecal or saliva specimens tested. These data suggest that intestinal immunity does not play a significant role in protection against hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 3500Journal Short Form workform?RTam, A. W. M. M. Smith M. E. Guerra C C. Huang D. W. Bradley K. E. Fry G. R. Reyes1991YHepatitis E virus (HEV): molecular cloning and sequencing of the full-length viral genome120-131Virology1851We have recently described the cloning of a portion of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) and confirmed its etiologic association with enterically transmitted (waterborne, epidemic) non-A, non-B hepatitis. The virus consists of a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome of approximately 7.5 kb, with a polyadenylated 3' end. We now report on the cloning and nucleotide sequencing of an overlapping, contiguous set of cDNA clones representing the entire genome of the HEV Burma strain [HEV(B)]. The largest open reading frame extends approximately 5 kb from the 5' end and contains the RNA-directed RNA polymerase and nucleoside triphosphate binding motifs. The second major open reading frame (ORF2) begins 37 bp downstream of the first and extends approximately 2 kb to the termination codon present 65 bp from the 3' terminal stretch of poly(A) residues. ORF2 contains a consensus signal peptide sequence at its amino terminus and a capsid-like region with a high content of basic amino acids similar to that seen with other virus capsid proteins. A third open reading frame partially overlaps the first and second and encompasses only 369 bp. In addition to the 7.5-kb full-length genomic transcript, two subgenomic polyadenylated messages of approximately 3.7 and 2.0 kb were detected in infected liver using a probe from the 3' third of the genome. The genomic organization of the virus is consistent with the 5' end encoding nonstructural and the 3' end encoding the viral structural gene(s). The expression strategy of the virus involves the use of three different open reading frames and at least three different transcripts. HEV was previously determined to be a nonenveloped particle with a diameter of 27-34 nm. These findings on the genetic organization and expression strategy of HEV suggest that it is the prototype human pathogen for a new class of RNA virus or perhaps a separate genus within the Caliciviridae family. ProCite Record Number: 3500Journal Short Form workformC?-Humphrey, C. D. E. H. Cook, Jr. D. W. Bradley1990mIdentification of enterically transmitted hepatitis virus particles by solid phase immune electron microscopy177-188Journal of Virological Methods292Small 'featureless' viruses (less than 50 nm) are difficult to identify by routine immune electron microscopy techniques, particularly when they are mixed with debris from stool or cell culture extracts. A combination of conventional immune electron microscopy (IEM) and solid phase IEM (SPIEM) methodologies was used to identify hepatitis A virus (HAV) in stool and cell culture extracts and non-A non-B hepatitis (hepatitis E) in stool extracts. Compared with conventional IEM, the modified SPIEM method resulted in a significant increase in the number of particles observed. Several small aggregates, each containing 2-20 particles, were observed scattered randomly within most grid squares. Similar results were seen with stool extracts from hepatitis E (HEV) infections. The SPIEM method is a simple, highly sensitive specific assay that facilitates rapid identification of enteric hepatitis viruses. Several experiments were done to characterize the effects of altered physical environment within the assay and to evaluate potential modifications. ProCite Record Number: 3510Journal Short Form workform?AEmerson, S. U. C. McRill B. Rosenblum S. Feinstone R. H. Purcell 1991]Mutations responsible for adaptation of hepatitis A virus to efficient growth in cell culture 4882-4886Journal of Virology659Chimeric genomes of hepatitis A virus strain HM-175 were constructed from cDNA clones of the wild-type virus and its cell culture-adapted variant. RNA transcribed in vitro from each construct was assayed for infectivity by transfection of cultured cells. RNA transcribed from the wild-type cDNA clone was minimally infectious and produced virus that grew inefficiently in vitro, whereas that transcribed from certain chimeric genomes consistently produced virus that grew efficiently in cultured cells. Mutations in the P2 region were found to be necessary for efficient virus growth in vitro, while mutations in the 5' noncoding region imparted a conditional enhancement of growth in vitro. ProCite Record Number: 3510Journal Short Form workform?IBalayan, M. S. R. K. Usmanov N. A. Zamyatina D. I. Djumalieva F. R. Karas19903Experimental hepatitis E infection in domestic pigs58-59Journal of Medical Virology321 not availableProCite Record Number: 3520Journal Short Form workform|?MLemon, S. M. P. C. Murphy P. A. Shields S. M. Feinstone T. Cromeans R. Jansen1991Antigenic and genetic variation in cytopathic hepatitis A virus variants arising during persistent infection: evidence for genetic recombination 2056-2065Journal of Virology654Variants of hepatitis A virus (pHM175 virus) recovered from persistently infected green monkey kidney (BS-C-1) cells induced a cytopathic effect during serial passage in BS-C-1 or fetal rhesus kidney (FRhK-4) cells. Epitope-specific radioimmunofocus assays showed that this virus comprised two virion populations, one with altered antigenicity including neutralization resistance to monoclonal antibody K24F2, and the other with normal antigenic characteristics. Replication of the antigenic variant was favored over that of virus with the normal antigenic phenotype during persistent infection, while virus with the normal antigenic phenotype was selected during serial passage. Viruses of each type were clonally isolated; both were cytopathic in cell cultures and displayed a rapid replication phenotype when compared with the noncytopathic passage 16 (p16) HM175 virus which was used to establish the original persistent infection. The two cytopathic virus clones contained 31 and 34 nucleotide changes from the sequence of p16 HM175. Both shared a common 5' sequence (bases 30 to 1677), as well as sequence identity in the P2-P3 region (bases 3249 to 5303 and 6462 to 6781) and 3' terminus (bases 7272 to 7478). VP3, VP1, and 3Cpro contained different mutations in the two virus clones, with amino acid substitutions at residues 70 of VP3 and 197 and 276 of VP1 of the antigenic variant. These capsid mutations did not affect virion thermal stability. A comparison of the nearly complete genomic sequences of three clonally isolated cytopathic variants was suggestive of genetic recombination between these viruses during persistent infection and indicated that mutations in both 5' and 3' nontranslated regions and in the nonstructural proteins 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, and 3Dpol may be related to the cytopathic phenotype. ProCite Record Number: 3520Journal Short Form workform?Blacklow, N. R. H. B. Greenberg1991Viral gastroenteritis252-264New England Journal of Medicine32425ReviewProCite Record Number: 3530Journal Short Form workform>?Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn R. Marchwicki P. C. Murphy L. H. Ping R. W. Jansen L. V. Asher J. T. Stapleton D. G. Taylor J. W. LeDuc 1990sIn vivo replication and reversion to wild type of a neutralization-resistant antigenic variant of hepatitis A virus7-13Journal of Infectious Diseases1611Six seronegative owl monkeys were intravenously inoculated with an antigenic variant (S18) of hepatitis A virus that is highly adapted to growth in cell culture and resists neutralization by monoclonal antibodies due to replacement of aspartic acid 70 of capsid protein VP3 with histidine. Each developed hepatitis 22-33 days after inoculation. Virus in feces, serum, and liver was quantified by radioimmunofocus assay. Viremia developed 7-11 days after inoculation, in parallel with fecal shedding of virus, and persisted for a mean of 20.5 days. Although the antigenic variant was recovered from feces or liver of three animals, virus in liver at the time of enzyme elevations was predominantly wild-type antigenic phenotype. Virus was not recovered from liver 96 days after challenge. These studies further define virologic events in hepatitis A and show that in vivo replication of an antigenic variant was restricted compared with that of wild-type virus. ProCite Record Number: 3530Journal Short Form workform?&Stapleton, J. T. J. Frederick B. Meyer19913Hepatitis A virus attachment to cultured cell lines 1098-1103Journal of Infectious Diseases1646Identification of a hepatitis A virus (HAV) receptor is important for understanding HAV tissue tropism and replication sites and in the design of vaccines and antiviral therapy. The attachment of HAV to cultured cell lines was evaluated: Calcium-dependent specific attachment of four HAV strains to permissive cells occurred, whereas binding to nonpermissive cells did not. Investigation of HAV antigenic variant strains (neutralization escape mutants) demonstrated identical attachment properties with neutralization-susceptible strains, suggesting that the immunodominant neutralization antigenic site of HAV is not directly involved in cell attachment. Unlike foot-and-mouth-disease virus, a related picornavirus, RGD peptides (arginine-glycine-aspartic acid) were unable to interfere with HAV attachment. These studies demonstrate that HAV has a calcium-dependent receptor on cultured cell lines and suggest that the HAV binding region does not involve an RGD sequence or the HAV immunodominant neutralization site. ProCite Record Number: 3540Journal Short Form workform?=Lin, Y. P. K. Nicholas F. R. Ball B. McLaughlin F. R. Bishai 1991xDetection of Norwalk-like virus and specific antibody by immune-electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes237-253Journal of Virological Methods353Direct electron-microscopy (DEM), immune electron microscopy (IEM) and four different procedures of immune electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes were evaluated for the detection of Norwalk-like virus and specific antibody. A solid-phase immune electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes-triple layer method (SPIEMGIC-TLM) is developed for screening patients' specimens for the detection of Norwalk-like virus and its specific antibody. The method demonstrates low non-specific background labelling and is simple, sensitive and easy to perform. A quadruple layer method (SPIEMGIC-QLM), which is a modification of the triple layer method, has been established by adding a cross-linking anti-IgG layer to amplify the reaction and to provide a more sensitive test which is suitable for screening monoclonal antibodies prepared against 32-34-nm Norwalk-like virus isolated in our laboratory. ProCite Record Number: 3540Journal Short Form workform?Anderson, D. A. B. C. Ross1990XMorphogenesis of hepatitis A virus: isolation and characterization of subviral particles 5284-5289Journal of Virology6411 The morphogenesis of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in BS-C-1 cells was examined by immunoblotting with antisera to capsid proteins and labeling of virus-specific proteins with L-[35S]methionine. Antiserum to VP2 detected two virus-specific proteins with apparent molecular masses of 30.6 and 30 kDa, representing VP0 and VP2, while antiserum to VP1 detected proteins with molecular masses of 33 and 40 kDa, representing VP1 and a virus-specific protein which we designated PX, respectively. Sedimentation of cell lysates revealed the presence of virions, procapsids, and pentamers, but particles analogous to the protomers of other picornaviruses were not detected. Although provirions and virions were not found as discrete species in our gradient system, it was evident that the rate of sedimentation was proportional to the relative amounts of VP0 and VP2 in particles, with slower-sedimenting particles (provirions) containing predominantly VP0 rather than VP2. Procapsids contained VP0 in addition to VP1 and VP3. Pentamers also contained VP0, but PX was present rather than VP1. These results suggest that PX is a precursor to VP1 and is most likely 1D2A. Primary cleavage of the viral polyprotein also occurs at the 2A-2B junction in cardioviruses and aphthoviruses, but assembly of pentamers containing 1D2A has not been reported for those viruses. The absence of detectable levels of protomers suggests a high efficiency of pentamer formation, which may be related to the high efficiency of viral RNA encapsidation for HAV (D.A. Anderson, B.C. Ross, and S.A. Locarnini, J. Virol. 62:4201-4206, 1988). The results of this study reveal further unusual aspects of the HAV replicative cycle which distinguish it from other picornaviruses and may contribute to its restricted replication in cell culture. ProCite Record Number: 3550Journal Short Form workform?hMatsui, S. M. J. P. Kim H. B. Greenberg W. Su Q. Sun P. C. Johnson H. L. DuPont L. S. Oshiro G. R. Reyes1991CThe isolation and characterization of a Norwalk virus-specific cDNA 1456-1461!Journal of Clinical Investigation874e(Original) Sequence-independent single primer amplification, gastroenteritis, viral diarrhea, cloningNorwalk virus, an important cause of epidemic, acute, nonbacterial gastroenteritis in adults and children, has eluded adaptation to tissue culture, the development of an animal model, and molecular cloning. In this study, a portion of the Norwalk viral genome encoding an immunoreactive region was cloned from very small quantities of infected stool using sequence-independent single primer amplification. Six overlapping complementary DNA (cDNA) clones were isolated by immunologic screening. The expressed recombinant protein from a representative clone reacted with six of seven high titer. Norwalk-specific, postinfection sera but not with corresponding preinfection sera. Nucleic acid sequence for all clones defined a single open reading frame contiguous with the lambda gt11-expressed beta-galactosidase protein. Only oligonucleotide probes specific for the positive strand (defined by the open reading frame) hybridized to an RNaseA-sensitive, DNaseI-resistant nucleic acid sequence extracted from Norwalk-infected stool. Furthermore, RNA extracted from serial postinfection, but not preinfection, stools from three of five volunteers hybridized to a Norwalk virus cDNA probe. Clone-specific oligonucleotide probes hybridized with cesium chloride gradient fractions containing purified Norwalk virion. In conclusion, an antigenic, protein-coding region of the Norwalk virus genome has been identified. This epitope has potential utility in future sero- and molecular epidemiologic studies of Norwalk viral gastroenteritis. ProCite Record Number: 3550Journal Short Form workform?Zou, S. R. K. Chaudhary1991LKinetic study of the replication of a cell-culture-adapted hepatitis A virus381-385Research in Virology1425The kinetics of replication of hepatitis A virus (LCDC-01) was studied in foetal rhesus monkey kidney cells (FRhK-4). Cells infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 2.0 showed no viral antigen production until 12 h post-infection using radioimmuno assay (RIA); however, at 48 h post-infection a logarithmic increase in antigen concentration began, which peaked by day 7. Similar patterns were observed with cultures infected with lower MOI (0.20 and 0.02) but events were delayed by about 24 h. In contrast, detection of antigen by fluorescence antibody methods occurred at only 72 h after inoculation, with either 2.0 or 0.02 MOI, and peaked by day 9. The production of infectious virus did not begin until 24 h post-infection as measured by RIA and gradually peaked by day 6. Viral RNA was first detected 24 h post-infection by hybridization assay. The amount of viral RNA in the infected cells increased significantly between days 4 to 7. Restriction in the synthesis of RNA or infectious virus was not observed. ProCite Record Number: 3560Journal Short Form workform ?&Badawy, A. S. C. P. Gerba L. M. Kelley1985)Survival of rotavirus SA-11 on vegetables199-205Food Microbiology23DLettuces, radishes, carrots, food-contamination, rotavirus, survival not availableProCite Record Number: 3570Journal Short Form workform?Berman, D. J. C. Hoff1984WInactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine317-323&Applied and Environmental Microbiology482The kinetics of inactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine were studied at 5 degrees C with a purified preparation of single virions and a preparation of cell-associated virions. Inactivation of the virus preparations with chlorine and chlorine dioxide was studied at pH 6 and 10. The monochloramine studies were done at pH 8. With 0.5 mg of chlorine per liter at pH 6, more than 4 logs (99.99%) of the single virions were inactivated in less than 15 s. Both virus preparations were inactivated more rapidly at pH 6 than at pH 10. With chlorine dioxide, however, the opposite was true. Both virus preparations were inactivated more rapidly at pH 10 than at pH 6. With 0.5 mg of chlorine dioxide per liter at pH 10, more than 4 logs of the single-virus preparation were inactivated in less than 15 s. The cell-associated virus was more resistant to inactivation by the three disinfectants than was the preparation of single virions. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide, each at a concentration of 0.5 mg/liter and at pH 6 and 10, respectively, inactivated 99% of both virus preparations within 4 min. Monochloramine at a concentration of 10 mg/liter and at pH 8 required more than 6 h for the same amount of inactivation. ProCite Record Number: 3580Journal Short Form workformM?Blackwell, J. H.19762Survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cheese 1574-1579Journal of Dairy Science599Persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus during the manufacture of Cheddar, Mozzarella, Camembert cheese prepared from milk of cows experimentally infected with the virus was studied. Cheese samples were made on a laboratory scale with commercial lactic acid starter cultures and the microbial protease MARZYME as a coagulant. Milk was heated at different temperatures for different intervals before it was made into cheese. Food-and-mouth disease virus survived the acidic conditions of Cheddar and Camembert cheese processing but not that of Mozzarella. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived processing but not curing for 30 days in Cheddar cheese preparaed from heated milk. However, the virus survived curing for 60 days but not for 120 days in cheese (pH 5) prepared from unheated milk. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in Camembert cheese (pH 5) for 21 days at 2 C but not for 35 days. ProCite Record Number: 3590Journal Short Form workform?-Blackwell, J. H. E. J. Nolan D. A. Rickansrud1988bTotal caloric input of a thermal process as an index of lethality for foot-and-mouth disease virus185-190Journal of Food Science531dMeat-products, food-contamination, aphthovirus, food-processing, heat-treatment, mathematical-modelslBecause significant quantities of foot-and-mouth disease virus undetectable by cell culture infectivity assay can persist in infected tissues throughout thermal processing, classical methods for measuring virus inactivation are difficult to achieve. This study was undertaken to observe the lethality of a given process rather than determining a constant for process time for a given lethality. Thermal diffusivities (alpha) and one-dimensional heat flux (Q) were determined for three thermal processes used in processing of beef and pork products. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in ground beef cooked in flexible nylon thermal processing tubes to core temperatures of 63 degrees C (892 kcal/m2) in 1.2 hr and 71.2 degrees C (1004 kcal/m2) in 1.45 hr; however, the virus did not survive after processing to a core temperature of 79.4 degrees C (1363 kcal/m2) in 2.0 hr.ProCite Record Number: 3600Journal Short Form workform?)Blackwell, J. H. S. Wool F. V. Kosikowski1981mVesicular exocytosis of foot-and-mouth disease virus from mammary gland secretory epithelium of infected cows207-212Journal of General Virology561Foot-and-mouth disease virus particles were observed by electron microscopy in the cytoplasma of alveolar secretory cells of the bovine mammary gland after contact exposure of uninfected cows to pits with foot-and-mouth disease. Virus, contained in membrane-limited vesicles, was released from the basal and peranuclear portions of the cells into the intracellular and extracellular spaces by an exocytotic mechanism similar to that of the release of th milk-fat globule. Virus was released into the lumen from the apical portion of the cell both by membrane-limited vesicles and by the merocrinal exocytosis of casein-associated virus. The lytic release of virus was observed in 20% of the preparations observedProCite Record Number: 3610Journal Short Form workform+?<Blackwell, J. H. D. Rickansrud P. D. McKercher J. W. McVicar1982[Effect of thermal processing on the survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in ground meat388-92Journal of Food Science47Foot-and-mouth disease virus was examined for its stability during cooking in tissues from infected cattle. The O1 (CANEFA 2) serotype of foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in lymph node tissues after heating for 2 hr at 69ºC, for 1 hr but not for 2 hr at 82ºC, and for 15 min but not for 0.5 hr at 90ºC. Incorporation of 1% NaCl into suspensions of infected lymph nodes enhanced viral survival after heating for 0.5 hr but not for 1 hr at 90ºC. The virus did not survive in either ground beef or meatballs contaminated with infected lymph node tissue, when processed to internal temperatures of 93.3, 96.1 or 98.8ºC using commercial thermal processing procedures. Accurate temperature measurements were achieved with a temperature sensitive indicator disc developed in this study.ProCite Record Number: 3620Journal Short Form workform? Breindl, M.1971,The structure of heated poliovirus particles147-156J. Gen. Virol.113ProCite Record Number: 3630Journal Short Form workform? Breindl, M.1971&VP4, the D-reactive part of poliovirus962-964Virology463ProCite Record Number: 3640Journal Short Form workform?Breindl, M. G. Koch1972nCompetence of suspended HeLa cells for infection by inactivated poliovirus particles and by isolated viral RNA136-144Virology481ProCite Record Number: 3650Journal Short Form workform?Cliver, D. O. J. E. Herrmann19727Proteolytic and microbial inactivation of enteroviruses797-805Water Research6ProCite Record Number: 3670Journal Short Form workform?$Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D.1979&Antiviral effectiveness of grape juice100-104 J. Food Prot.42ProCite Record Number: 3680Journal Short Form workform?4Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D. M. R. Vallenas1970*Stability of viruses in low moisture foods484-491J. Milk Food Technol.3311 not availableProCite Record Number: 3700Journal Short Form workform?4Cunliffe, H. R. J. H. Blackwell R. Dors J. S. Walker1979QInactivation of milkborne foot-and-mouth disease virus at ultra-high temperatures135-137Journal of Food Protection42ProCite Record Number: 3710Journal Short Form workform?$Di Girolamo, R. J. Liston J. Matches1972GEffects of irradiation on the survival of viruses in west coast oysters 1005-1006Applied Microbiology246ProCite Record Number: 3730Journal Short Form workform@?#DiGirolamo, R. J. Liston J. Matches1975:Uptake and elimination of poliovirus by west coast oysters260-264Applied Microbiology292bAccumulation of poliovirus Lsc-2ab by West Coast oysters was determined by using a stationary seawater system, and depuration was determined by using both stationary and free-flow systems. Results indicate that these shellfish have the same pattern of accumulation and localization of viruses as do East Coast species. However, uptake appeared to occur more rapidly than described for East Coast shellfish. There appeared to be a gradual diffusion of virus from the digestive area into the body. Depuration was found to occur more rapidly and completely under free-flow conditions than in a stationary system. ProCite Record Number: 3740Journal Short Form workformRWht7.Dahling, D. R. Wright, B. A.1986nOptimization of the BGM cell line culture and viral assay procedures for monitoring viruses in the environment790-812Appl Environ Microbiol514Animal?Filppi, J. A. G. J. Banwart1974OEffect of the fat content of ground beef on the heat inactivation of poliovirus865-868Journal of Food Science39ProCite Record Number: 3760Journal Short Form workform?(Fricks, C. E. J. P. Icenogle J. M. Hogle1985nTrypsin sensitivity of the Sabin strain of type 1 poliovirus: Cleavage sites in virions and related particles856-859Journal of Virology543Treatment of the Sabin strain of type 1 poliovirus with trypsin produced two stable fragments of capsid protein VP1 which remained associated with the virions. Trypsinized virus was fully infectious and was neutralized by type-specific antisera. The susceptible site in the Sabin 1 strain was between the lysine at position 99 and the asparagine at position 100. A similar tryptic cleavage occurred in the Leon and Sabin strains of type 3 poliovirus, probably at the arginine at position 100, but not in the type 1 Mahoney strain, which lacks a basic residue at either position 99 or position 100. Tryptic treatment of heat-treated virus and 14S assembly intermediates produced unique stable fragments which were different from those produced in virions. The implications of our results for future characterization of the surface structures of these particles and structural rearrangements in the poliovirus capsid are discussed. ProCite Record Number: 3770Journal Short Form workform?Grausgruber, W.1963ZInvestigations of the inactivation of infectious swine paralysis virus in scalded sausages678-685Wiener Tierärztl. Monatsschr.50ProCite Record Number: 3790Journal Short Form workform? Gresikova, M.1972<Studies on tick-borne arboviruses isolated in central Europe1-111Biologicke Prace.182 not availableProCite Record Number: 3800Journal Short Form workform?Heidelbaugh, N. D. D. J. Giron1969DEffect of processing on recovery of poliovirus from inoculated foods239-241Journal of Food Science34 not availableProCite Record Number: 3820Journal Short Form workform?Heidelbaugh, N. D. J. H. Graves1968kEffects of some techniques applicable in food processing on the infectivity of foot-and-mouth disease virus120-124Food Technology22ProCite Record Number: 3830Journal Short Form workform?Herrmann, J. E. D. O. Cliver19732Enterovirus persistence in sausage and ground beef426-428Journal of Milk Food Technology368 not availableProCite Record Number: 3850Journal Short Form workform?!Hogle, J. M. M. Chow D. J. Filman1985>Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus at 2.9 A resolution 1358-1365Science2294720The three-dimensional structure of poliovirus has been determined at 2.9 A resolution by x-ray crystallographic methods. Each of the three major capsid proteins (VP1, VP2, and VP3) contains a "core" consisting of an eight-stranded antiparallel beta barrel with two flanking helices. The arrangement of beta strands and helices is structurally similar and topologically identical to the folding pattern of the capsid proteins of several icosahedral plant viruses. In each of the major capsid proteins, the "connecting loops" and NH2- and COOH-terminal extensions are structurally dissimilar. The packing of the subunit "cores" to form the virion shell is reminiscent of the packing in the T = 3 plant viruses, but is significantly different in detail. Differences in the orientations of the subunits cause dissimilar contacts at protein-protein interfaces, and are also responsible for two major surface features of the poliovirion: prominent peaks at the fivefold and threefold axes of the particle. The positions and interactions of the NH2- and COOH-terminal strands of the capsid proteins have important implications for virion assembly. Several of the "connecting loops" and COOH-terminal strands form prominent radial projections which are the antigenic sites of the virion. ProCite Record Number: 3860Journal Short Form workform? Kaneko, M.1989NEffect of suspended solids on inactivation of poliovirus and T2-phage by ozone215-219Water Science and Technology213ProCite Record Number: 3870Journal Short Form workform ?Kantor, M. A. N. N. Potter1975tPersistence of echovirus and poliovirus in fermented sausages: Effects of sodium of nitrite and processing variables968-972Journal of Food Science40ProCite Record Number: 3880Journal Short Form workformd?kKeswick, B. H. T. K. Satterwhite P. C. Johnson H. L. DuPont S. L. Secor J. A. Bitsura G. W. Gary J. C. Hoff1985;Inactivation of Norwalk virus in drinking water by chlorine261-264Appl. Environ. Microbiol.5028Norwalk virus in water was found to be more resistant to chlorine inactivation than poliovirus type 1 (LSc2Ab), human rotavirus (Wa), simian rotavirus (SA11), or f2 bacteriophage. A 3.75 mg/liter dose of chlorine was found to be effective against other viruses but failed to inactivate Norwalk virus. The Norwalk virus inoculum remained infectious for five of eight volunteers, despite the initial presence of free residual chlorine. Infectivity in volunteers was demonstrated by seroconversion to Norwalk virus. Fourteen of 16 subjects receiving untreated inoculum seroconverted to Norwalk virus. Illness was produced in four of the eight volunteers and in 11 of 16 control subjects. A similar Norwalk virus inoculum treated with a 10 mg/liter dose of chlorine produced illness in only one and failed to induce seroconversion in any of eight volunteers. Free chlorine (5 to 6 mg/liter) was measured in the reaction vessel after a 30-minute contact period. Norwalk virus appears to be very resistant to chlorine which may explain its importance in outbreaks of waterborne disease.ProCite Record Number: 3890Journal Short Form workform V\|7#Leong, Y. K. Xui, O. C. Chia, O. K.2008YSurvival of SA11 rotavirus in fresh fruit juices of pineapple, papaya, and honeydew melon1035-7 J Food Prot715<Ananas/*?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs19741Recovery of coxsackievirus B5 from stored lettuce132-134Journal of Milk Food Technology373 not availableProCite Record Number: 3910Journal Short Form workform?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1975<Survival of enteric virus on fresh vegetables[Contamination]469-472Journal of Milk Food Technology388 not availableProCite Record Number: 3920Journal Short Form workform?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1976$Antiviral activity of fruit extracts 1013-1017Journal of Food Science41ProCite Record Number: 3930Journal Short Form workformt7`Konowalchuk, J. Speirs, J. I.19783Antiviral effect of commercial juices and beverages1219-20Appl Environ Microbiol356hAntiviral Agents/*pharmacology Ascorbic Acid/pharmacology *Beverages *Fruit Poliovirus/*drug effects TeaJunNineteen commercial juices or beverages were tested for inactivation of poliovirus type 1. Grape and apple juices and tea were particularly antiviral. Although antiviral in aqueous solution, ascorbic acid was ineffective after addition to juices.chttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=209736Konowalchuk, J Speirs, J I United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978 Jun;35(6):1219-20.0099-2240 (Print)243010209736eng Sclined more readily than that of commercial juice in response to heat and storage. The component responsible for activity was located both in the pulp and skin; after ultrafiltration, activity was present in fractions greater and less than molecular?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1977Virus detection on grapes 1301-1303 Canadian Journal of Microbiology2390Grapes inoculated with poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus B5 were washed with water, 0.5% polyehtylene glycol, or phosphate-buffered saline with 1% serum. These washes were equally efficient at removing virus but much of the virus in the water was noninfectious until treated with 0.5% polyethylene glycol. ProCite Record Number: 3950Journal Short Form workformzHt7aKonowalchuk, J. Speirs, J. I.1978#Antiviral effect of apple beverages798-801Appl Environ Microbiol366Antiviral Agents/*pharmacology *Beverages Enterovirus B, Human/*drug effects *Fruit Heat Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Poliovirus/*drug effectsDec:A variety of apple beverages were tested for antiviral activity against poliovirus 1 or coxsackievirus B5. Freshly prepared apple juice was particularly antiviral, but its activity de?#Kostenbader Jr., K. D. D. O. Cliver19781Quest for viruses associated with our food supply1253-1257,1268 J. Food Sci.42ProCite Record Number: 3980Journal Short Form workform?'Larkin, E. P. J. T. Tierney R. Sullivan19763Persistence of virus on sewage-irrigated vegetables29-35&J. Envir. Eng. Div., Am. Soc Civ. Eng.102ProCite Record Number: 4000Journal Short Form workform?Lynt, R. K. Jr.1966/Survival and recovery of enterovirus from foods218-222Applied Microbiology144ProCite Record Number: 4010Journal Short Form workform+?D)Di Girolamo, R., Liston, J., Matches, J. 1972<Survival of virus in chilled, frozen, and processed oysters.58-63Applied Microbiology20?<Metcalf, T. G. B. Mullin D. Eckerson E. Moulton E. P. Larkin1979VBioaccumulation and depuration of enteroviruses by the soft-shelled clam, Mya arenaria275-282&Applied and Environmental Microbiology382Low levels of feces-associated natural virus, simulating virus numbers estimated to exist in moderately polluted shellfish-growing waters, were used to evaluate the effectiveness of depuration as a virus depletion procedure in soft-shell clams. Depuration effectiveness depended upon the numbers of virus bioaccumulated and whether virus was solids associated. Virus uptake was greatest when viruses were solids associated and pollution levels were equivalent or greater than those likely to be found in grossly polluted growing waters. Virtually all bioaccumulated feces-associated natural virus was deposited within either the hepatopancreas or siphon tissues. Viruses usually were eliminated within a 24- to 48-h depuration period. Dependence upon depuration of clams to elimate health hazards of virus etiology involved a risk factor not measureable in the study. The greatest reduction of health risks would come from the routine depuration of clams harvested from growing waters of good sanitary quality. ProCite Record Number: 4040Journal Short Form workform?2Metcalf, T. G. D. Eckerson E. Moulton E. P. Larkin1980RUptake and depletion of particulate-associated polioviruses by the soft shell clam87-88Journal of Food Protection432ProCite Record Number: 4050Journal Short Form workform @V@|7.Moce-Llivina, L. Papageorgiou, G. T. Jofre, J.2006A membrane-based quantitative carrier test to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and persistence of viruses on porous fomites49-55J Virol Methods1351Adsorption Antiviral Agents/*pharmacology Cellulose/analogs & derivatives Chlorine/pharmacology Disinfectants/*pharmacology Enterovirus/*drug effects Glutaral/pharmacology Humans Humidity Plaque Assay Temperature *Virus InactivationJul@A membrane-based quantitative carrier test method to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and the persistence of viruses on fomites under different environmental conditions is described. The method is based on the inactivation of the virus adsorbed to cellulose ester membranes followed by the direct enumeration of the viruses surviving the treatment without the need of an elution step. The method was suitable for four different human enteroviruses tested. Experiments comparing the infectivity loss of human enteroviruses in suspension or adsorbed to the filters after treatment with chlorine and glutaraldehyde showed that the human enteroviruses tested suffered significantly greater log10 reductions when suspended than when adsorbed. Significant differences in the effect of the disinfectants on the various human enteroviruses tested were also observed. Moreover, the procedure allowed determining the inactivation of viruses ?AMitchell, J. R. M. W. Presnell E. W. Akin J. M. Cummins O. C. Liu1966@Accumulation and elimination of poliovirus by the eastern oyster40-50 American Journal of Epidemiology841ProCite Record Number: 4070Journal Short Form workform?5Neefe, J. R. J. Stokes, Jr. J. B. Baty J. G. Reinhold1945SDisinfection of water containing causative agent of infectious (epidemic) hepatitis 1076-1080'Journal of American Medical Association128ProCite Record Number: 4080Journal Short Form workform?EPanina, G. F. A. Civardi I. Massirio F. Scatozza P. Baldini F. Palmia1989RSurvival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in sausage meat products (Italian salami)141-148*International Journal of Food Microbiology82YDetermination of the survival of foot- and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in fresh meat from experimentally infected swine and in several types of sausage meat (Italian salami) produced according to the technology widely applied by the principal Italian producers has been carried out. The purpose of the experiment was to assess if typical Italian salami can be considered safe with regard to the spread of FMD through international trade. The results obtained showed: (a) high titers of FMDV were detected in both muscle and fat tissues from animals slaughtered at the peak of the experimental disease; and (b) FMDV was not detectable in the above tissues 72 h after slaughtering and the same applies to the different types of salami tested 7 days after production. The above results were obtained in tissue cultures and confirmed through piglet inoculation. ProCite Record Number: 4090Journal Short Form workform?8Peterson, D. A. L. G. Wolfe E. P. Larkin F. W. Deinhardt1978EThermal treatment and infectivity of hepatitis A virus in human feces201-206Journal of Medical Virology23The susceptibility of white-lipped marmoset monkeys (Saguinus sp) to human hepatitis A virus (HAV) provides a system for evaluation of thermal inactivation of HAV in feces and contaminated shellfish. Intramuscular or oral administration of HAV derived from feces of four patients with acute hepatitis A induced hepatitis in 28--100% of the inoculated marmosets. A 10% (w/v) fecal pool (GBG-BM) prepared from two patients (GBG and GBM) induced hepatitis in marmosets (2/4 with 1 ml; 2/2 with 3 ml) when given orally as a 1 : 3 dilution. A HAV-baby food raw oyster mixture fed to fasted marmosets induced hepatitis in 1/4 and seroconversion in 2/4 animals. Two groups of oysters were injected with HAV (concentrated 3 : 1 by centrifugation of the GBG-BM pool); one group was treated at 140 degrees F for 19 minutes and the other served as an untreated control. In animals fed the untreated inoculum, 4/6 developed hepatitis and 6/6 seroconverted, whereas of those fed the heat-treated inoculum 1/7 developed hepatitis and 2/7 seroconverted. These data suggest that pasteurization methods could be developed that would eliminate shellfish-associated hepatitis A and retain the palatability of the shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 4100Journal Short Form workform?3Peterson, D. A. T. R. Hurley J. C. Hoff L. G. Wolfe1983@Effect of chlorine treatment on infectivity of hepatitis A virus223-227Appl. Environ. Microbiol.451This study examined the effect of chlorine treatment on the infectivity of hepatitis A virus (HAV). Prodromal chimpanzee feces, shown to induce hepatitis in marmosets (Saguinus sp.), was clarified, and the virus was precipitated with 7% polyethylene glycol 6000, harvested, and resuspended. The suspension was layered onto 5 to 30% linear sucrose gradients and centrifuged; the fractions containing HAV were dialyzed, and a 1:500,000 dilution of this preparation induced hepatitis and seroconversion in 2 of 4 marmosets. A 1:50 dilution of this preparation served as inoculum. Untreated inoculum induced overt hepatitis and seroconversion in 100% (5 of 5) of marmosets inoculated intramuscularly. Inoculum treated for various periods (15, 30, or 60 min) with 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter induced hepatitis in 14% (2 of 14), 8% (1 of 12), and 10% (1 of 10) of marmosets, respectively, and induced seroconversion in 29, 33, and 10% of the animals. Inoculum treated with 2.0 or 2.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter was not infectious in marmosets as determined by absence of hepatitis and seroconversion in the 13 animals tested. Thus, treatment levels of 0.5 to 1.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter inactivated most but not all HAV in the preparation, whereas concentrations of 2.0 and 2.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter destroyed the infectivity completely. These results suggest that HAV is somewhat more resistant to chlorine than are other enteroviruses.ProCite Record Number: 4110Journal Short Form workform?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1989mDifferential depuration of poliovirus, Escherichia coli, and a coliphage by the common mussel, Mytilus edulis 1386-1390&Applied and Environmental Microbiology556The elimination of sewage effluent-associated poliovirus, Escherichia coli, and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage by the common mussel, Mytilus edulis, was studied. Both laboratory-and commercial-scale recirculating, UV depuration systems were used in this study. In the laboratory system, the logarithms of the poliovirus, E. coli, and coliphage levels were reduced by 1.86, 2.9, and 2.16, respectively, within 52 h of depuration. The relative patterns and rates of elimination of the three organisms suggest that they are eliminated from mussels by different mechanisms during depuration under suitable conditions. Poliovirus was not included in experiments undertaken in the commercial-scale depuration system. The differences in the relative rates and patterns of elimination were maintained for E. coli and coliphage in this system, with the logarithm of the E. coli levels being reduced by 3.18 and the logarithm of the coliphage levels being reduced by 0.87. The results from both depuration systems suggest that E. coli is an inappropriate indicator of the efficiency of virus elimination during depuration. The coliphage used appears to be a more representative indicator. Depuration under stressful conditions appeared to have a negligible affect on poliovirus and coliphage elimination rates from mussels. However, the rate and pattern of E. coli elimination were dramatically affected by these conditions. Therefore, monitoring E. coli counts might prove useful in ensuring that mussels are functioning well during depuration. ProCite Record Number: 4120Journal Short Form workform S|7cJassim, S. A. Naji, M. A.20035Novel antiviral agents: a medicinal plant perspective412-27J Appl Microbiol953Antiviral Agents/*therapeutic use Clinical Trials as Topic Drug Therapy, Combination Humans Phytotherapy/*methods Plant Extracts/chemistry/*therapeutic use Virus Diseases/*drug therapySeveral hundred plant and herb species that have potential as novel antiviral agents have been studied, with surprisingly little overlap. A wide variety of active phytochemicals, including the flavonoids, terpenoids, lignans, sulphides, polyphenolics, coumarins, saponins, furyl compounds, alkaloids, polyines, thiophenes, proteins and peptides have been identified. Some volatile essential oils of commonly used culinary herb?.Sattar, S. A. R. A. Raphael V. S. Springthorpe1984;Rotavirus survival in conventionally treated drinking water653-656 Canadian Journal of Microbiology305Samples of conventionally treated drinking water collected either as effluent (PE) at a treatment plant or out of a tap (TW) in our laboratory were seeded with simian rotavirus SA-11, which closely resembles rotavirus of human origin. The virus, grown in MA-104 cells, was suspended either in distilled water, Earle's balanced salt solution (EBSS), or tryptose phosphate broth (TPB), and added to the water samples to a final concentration of 5.7 X 10(3) plaque-forming units (PFU) per millilitre. After a contact time of 1 h at 22 degrees C, the samples were diluted and plaque assayed. There was no significant reduction in the virus titre in samples of TW (less than 0.05 mg/L free chlorine). The titre also remained almost the same in PE (0.75 mg/L free chlorine) when EBSS or TPB was used for virus suspension. There was, however, nearly a 1 log10 loss in the titre of the virus when it was suspended in distilled water before the contamination of PE. To study the long-term survival of the rotavirus in TW, the inoculated samples (5.0 X 10(4) PFU/mL) were held at either 4 or 20 degrees C in the dark and tested over a period of 64 days. At 20 degrees C it took 64 days to reduce the virus titre by 2 log10, whereas at 4 degrees C the virus titre dropped only 0.7 log10 during the same period. Rotaviruses could, therefore, survive well enough in conventionally treated drinking water to make it a possible vehicle for their transmission. ProCite Record Number: 4150Journal Short Form workform0?1Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe Y. Karim P. Loro1989uChemical disinfection of non-porous inanimate surfaces experimentally contaminated with four human pathogenic viruses493-505Epidemiology and Infection1023The chemical disinfection of virus-contaminated non-porous inanimate surfaces was investigated using coxsackievirus B3, adenovirus type 5, parainfluenza virus type 3 and coronavirus 229E as representatives of important nosocomial viral pathogens. A 10 microliter amount of the test virus, suspended in either faeces or mucin, was placed onto each stainless steel disk (about 1 cm in diameter) and the inoculum allowed to dry for 1 h under ambient conditions. Sixteen disinfectant formulations were selected for this study based on the findings of an earlier investigation with a human rotavirus. After 1 min exposure to 20 microliters of the disinfectant, the virus from the disks was immediately eluted into tryptose phosphate broth and plaque assayed. Using an efficacy criterion of a 3 log10 or greater reduction in virus infectivity titre and irrespective of the virus suspending medium, only the following five disinfectants proved to be effective against all the four viruses tested: (1) 2% glutaraldehyde normally used as an instrument soak, (2) a strongly alkaline mixture of 0.5% sodium o-benzyl-p-chlorophenate and 0.6% sodium lauryl sulphate, generally used as a domestic disinfectant cleaner for hard surfaces, (3) a 0.04% solution of a quaternary ammonium compound containing 7% hydrochloric acid, which is the basis of many toilet bowl cleaners, (4) chloramine T at a minimum free chlorine level of 3000 p.p.m. and (5) sodium hypochlorite at a minimum free chlorine concentration of 5000 p.p.m. Of those chemicals suitable for use as topical antiseptics, 70% ethanol alone or products containing at least 70% ethanol were ineffective only against coxsackievirus B3. These results emphasize the care needed in selecting chemical disinfectants for routine use in infection control. ProCite Record Number: 4160Journal Short Form workform?ESeraichekas, H. R. D. A. Brashear J. A. Barnick P. F. Carey O. C. Liu19681Viral depuration by assaying individual shellfish 1865-1871Applied Microbiology1612ProCite Record Number: 4170Journal Short Form workform?DSullivan, R. J. T. Tierney E. P. Larkin R. B. Read, Jr. J. T. Peeler1971SThermal resistance of certain oncogenic viruses suspended in milk and milk products315-320Applied Microbiology223ProCite Record Number: 4190Journal Short Form workform?KSullivan, R. Fassolitis, A. C. Larkin, E. P. Read, R. B., Jr. Peeler, J. T.19711Inactivation of thirty viruses by gamma radiation61-65Applied Microbiology221ProCite Record Number: 4200Journal Short Form workform Vj|7SVolkin, D. B. Burke, C. J. Marfia, K. E. Oswald, C. B. Wolanski, B. Middaugh, C. R.1997wSize and conformational stability of the hepatitis A virus used to prepare VAQTA, a highly purified inactivated vaccine666-73?7Sullivan, R. R. M. Marnell E. P. Larkin R. B. Read, Jr.1975IInactivation of poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus B-2 in broiled hamburgers473-475Journal of Milk Food Technology38ProCite Record Number: 4220Journal Short Form workformV?Tierney, J. T. E. P. Larkin1978<Potential sources of error during virus thermal inactivation432-437&Applied and Environmental Microbiology363lA review of virus thermal inactivation data published in the literature demonstrated variations in reported virus resistance. Examination of the methods used indicated that numerous studies were made by heat processing virus suspensions in test tubes. Duplication of some of the methods using milk suspensions of poliovirus 1 showed virus persistence after heating as a result of uneven temperature distribution inside the test tubes. Unless the containers (preferably sealed ampoules or capillary tubes) are completely submerged in the water bath and agitated vigorously, apparent virus persistence may be encountered. ProCite Record Number: 4230Journal Short Form workform\?'Tierney, J. T. R. Sullivan E. P. Larkin1977Persistence of poliovirus 1 in soil and on vegetables grown in soil previously flooded with inoculated sewage sludge or effluent109-113&Applied and Environmental Microbiology331"Land disposal of sewage sludge and effluent is becoming a common practice in the United States. The fertilizer content and humus value of such wastes are useful for agricultural purposes, and the recycling of sewage onto the land eliminates many of our stream pollution problems. The potential exists for crops grown in such irrigated soil to be contaminated by viruses that may be present in the sewage. Studies were initiated to determine viral persistence in soil and on crops grown under natural conditions in field plots that had been flooded to a depth of 1 inch (2.54 cm) with poliovirus 1-inoculated sewage wastes. Lettuce and radishes were planted in sludge- or effluent-flooded soil. In one study, the vegetables were planted 1 day before flooding, and in another they were planted 3 days after the plots were flooded. Survival of poliovirus 1 in soil irrigated with inoculated sewage sludge and effluent was determined during two summer growing seasons and one winter period. The longest period of survival was during the winter, when virus was detected after 96 days. During the summer, the longest survival period was 11 days. Poliovirus 1 was recovered from the mature vegetables 23 days after flooding of the plots had ceased. Lettuce and radishes are usually harvested 3 to 4 weeks after planting. ProCite Record Number: 4240Journal Short Form workform?4Tierney, J. T. R. Sullivan J. T. Peeler E. P. Larkin1982aPersistence of polioviruses in shellstock and shucked oysters stored at refrigeration temperature 1135-1137Journal of Food Protection45ProCite Record Number: 4250Journal Short Form workform?*Van Donsel D. J. J. T. Peeler E. P. Larkin1986jComparative thermal resistance of human and simian rotaviruses assayed on cells grown in serum-free medium 818-821, 825Journal of Food Protection4910URotavirus, heat-resistance, pasteurization, assays, culture-media, foodborne-diseases not availableProCite Record Number: 4260Journal Short Form workform4?%Vaughn, J. M. Y. S. Chen M. Z. Thomas19868Inactivation of human and simian rotaviruses by chlorine391-394&Applied and Environmental Microbiology512DThe inactivation of simian rotavirus SA-11 and human rotavirus type 2 (Wa) by chlorine was compared at 4 degrees C by using single-particle virus stocks. Both virus types were usually more readily inactivated at pH 6.0 than at pH 8.0 when low chlorine concentrations (0.05 to 0.2 mg/liter) were used. A complete (5 log) reduction of both was obtained within 20 s at all pH levels when chlorine concentrations were increased to 0.3 mg/liter. Slight differences in the chlorine sensitivities of SA-11 and human rotavirus type 2 were noted but were not considered to be significant. ProCite Record Number: 4270Journal Short Form workform?Safe Drinking Water Committee1980"The Disinfection of drinking water5-137Drinking Water and Health2Washington, D. C.National Academy of SciencesProCite Record Number: 4280Book Long Form workform?KOlivieri, V. P. F. S. Hauchman C. I. Noss R. Vasl M. P. Neeper D. O. Cliver1983LMode of action of chlorine dioxide on selected bacterial and enteric viruses261-2810Viruses and Disinfection of Water and Wastewater!Butler, M. A. R. Medlen R. MorrisGuildford, EnglandUniversity of Surrey Print UnitProCite Record Number: 4290Book Long Form workform? Anonymous1988!Outbreak of hepatitis A--Shanghai91-2WHO Weekly Epidemiology Records6313ProCite Record Number: 5000Journal Short Form workformL?Bean, N. H. P. M. Griffin1990\Foodborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1973-1987: pathogens, vehicles, and trends804-817Journal of Food Protection539Foods, foodborne-diseases, etiology, epidemiology, disease-statistics, disease-surveys, pathogens, disease-vectors, trends, morbidity, mortality, seasonality, USAThe etiologic agents and food vehicles associated with the 7458 outbreaks (involving 237,545 cases) of foodborne disease reported to the Centers for Disease Control between 1973 and 1987 were examined. Bacterial pathogens accounted for 66% of outbreaks and 87% of cases, viruses 5 and 9%, parasites 5 and less than 1%, and chemicals 25 and 4%, respectively. Salmonella accounted for 42% of outbreaks and 51% of cases due to bacterial pathogens. When data from 1973-75 were compared with 1985-87, a 75% increase in the proportion of outbreaks and 130% increase in the proportion of cases due to Salmonella were observed; in particular, outbreaks due to Salmonella enteritidis increased markedly. The proportion of Salmonella outbreaks with a known vehicle that were associated with beef (the food most frequently associated with Salmonella outbreaks) peaked at 30% in 1981, dropped to 4% in 1982, and has since risen gradually. The proportion of Salmonella outbreaks due to chicken and eggs increased over the study period. Bacteria not previously recognized as important foodborne pathogens that emerged during the study period include Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli 0157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes. Bacterial pathogens accounted for 90% of deaths, with L. monocytogenes (317/1,000 cases) and Clostridium botulinum (192/1,000 cases) having the highest death-to-case ratios. The proportion of outbreaks in which the food was prepared in a commercial or institutional establishment and the median outbreak size both increased. Investigation and analysis of foodborne disease outbreaks continue to play a key role in understanding foodborne illness and in designing and evaluating control measures.ProCite Record Number: 5010Journal Short Form workform?3Bean, N. H. P. M. Griffin J. S. Goulding C. B. Ivey19906Foodborne disease outbreaks, 5-year summary, 1983-198715-57& Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report391 This report summarizes data from foodborne disease outbreaks reported to CDC from 1983 through 1987. With a few exceptions, an outbreak is defined as an incident in which two or more persons experience a similar illness and food is implicated. During this period, 2,397 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported, representing 91,678 cases. Among outbreaks in which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest number of outbreaks (66%) and cases (92%). Chemical agents caused 26% of outbreaks and 2% of cases. Parasites caused 4% of outbreaks and less than 1% of cases, and viruses caused 5% of outbreaks and 5% of cases. The discrepancies between the number of outbreaks and the number of cases attributed to each etiologic agent emphasizes the importance of evaluating both numbers before drawing conclusions. The etiologic agent was not determined in 62% of outbreaks, reflecting the need for improved investigative skills. The number of outbreaks reported by this surveillance system is only a small fraction of the true number that occur. The likelihood of an outbreak's being reported depends on many factors, such as ease of recognition and ease of laboratory confirmation. Sporadic foodborne illness is far more common and is not included in this report. ProCite Record Number: 5020Journal Short Form workform?Blackwell, J. H.1980YInternationalism and survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle and food products 1019-1030Journal of Dairy Science636'Foot-and-mouth disease is a serious world-wide economic disease of livestock and diverse animal species. The closing of borders to infected countries is a frequent aftermath of disease outbreaks. Historically, animals and animal products have been implicated as vehicles for transmission of the disease. Control programs encompass stringent importation policies, vaccination, quarantine, and slaughter. Joint efforts have been instituted successfully in previous control campaigns and would be the logical approach to large-scale eradication schemas. ProCite Record Number: 5030Journal Short Form workform?)Cliver, D. O. R. D. Ellender M. D. Sobsey1983JMethods for detecting viruses in foods: background and general principles248-259 J. Food Prot.463Methods for the detection of food viruses are reviewed. Hepatitis A (HA) and some viral gastroenteritides known frequently can be spread in this way, as can any virus from the human intestines. Bacterial indicators of fecal contamination show limited correlation with the incidence of viruses in foods, so tests to detect viruses are needed. The epidemiologic record has led to selection of certain shellfish (bivalve molluscs) and vegetables and fruits as foods for which test methods should be described. Ground beef and raw milk also are considered because of the great interest they have attracted among research workers. Viruses in foods are presently detected on the basis of the infections they cause in cultured primate cells, but these cell culture methods do not permit detection of the HA virus, nor the most important of the foodborne gastroenteritis viruses. Current methods of virus detection entail liquefaction of the food sample, clarification of the sample suspension, possible concentration of the clarified food extract, and inoculation of cell cultures. Some specialized equipment is required for some of these procedures. The inclusion of proper controls is critical to the interpretation of results that are obtained.ProCite Record Number: 5040Journal Short Form workform?)Cliver, D. O. R. D. Ellender M. D. Sobsey1983IMethods to detect viruses in foods: testing and interpretation of results345-357 J. Food Prot.464Review not availableProCite Record Number: 5050Journal Short Form workform?Heinz, B. A. D. O. Cliver1988RCoxsackievirus-cell interactions that initiate infection in porcine ileal explants35-47 Arch. Virol.1011-2 Coxsackievirus B5 (CB5) labeled with tritiated uridine was used to trace the interaction of the virus with explant cultures of porcine ileum. Similarly labeled human poliovirus 1 (PO 1), which is not specifically retained by porcine tissue, was used as a control. The explant procedure employed could maintain ileal tissue in a differentiated state for up to 48 hours. Porcine ileum was acquired from both young (4-6 week-old) and adult (9-11 month-old) animals. Inoculated explants of either absorptive or lymphoid tissue were incubated at temperatures selected to permit either viral adsorption or penetration and elution to occur. Retention of radioactive virus was quantitated by liquid scintillation counting and localized by autoradiography. Only in absorptive tissue explants from young animals did adsorption of CB5 at 6 degrees C exceed penetration at 37 degrees C. This suggested that incubation at 6 degrees C may not be an appropriate condition for studying enterovirus adsorption in explants. CB5 penetrated most efficiently into lymphoid tissue explants from young animals, indicating that these tissues could discriminate between CB5 and PO 1. In explants from adults, CB5 penetrated equally well into lymphoid and absorptive tissues. Virus penetrated into the absorptive epithelial cells and, possibly, the lamina propria near the villous tips. Low efficiency of penetration, and the non-critical function of these target cells, may help account for the characteristic lack of gastrointestinal symptoms in enterovirus infections.ProCite Record Number: 5060Journal Short Form workform?$Heinz, B. A. D. O. Cliver B. Donohoe19871Enterovirus replication in porcine ileal explants 2495-2499J. Gen. Virol.689=Organ explants of porcine ileum were cultured in different media for up to 48 h. Tissue preservation was evaluated by light microscopy and by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Cellular structure was well maintained after incubation for 48 h in CMRL-1066 supplemented with insulin and cortisone. Explants of absorptive or lymphoid tissue from young or adult pigs were incubated with either coxsackievirus B5 (which is infectious for swine) or human poliovirus type 1 (which served as a control) for 24 h at 37 degrees C. Progeny virus was detected by plaque assay. Replication was most evident in the absorptive tissue explants from young pigs. In tissues from adults, replication occurred equally well in absorptive and lymphoid tissues. Infection in explants was inefficient, and the yield of progeny virus was low.ProCite Record Number: 5070Journal Short Form workform?BIverson, A. M. M. Gill L. R. Bartlett W. D. Cubitt D. A. McSwiggan1987Two outbreaks of foodborne gastroenteritis caused by a small round structured virus: evidence of prolonged infectivity in a food handler556-558Lancet28558LIn two outbreaks of diarrhoea and vomiting that were caused by a small round structured virus (SRSV) that affected over 275 people, epidemiological and laboratory evidence showed that certain foods were the vehicles of infection and suggest that one of the chefs who prepared them may have been excreting this virus for a long time.ProCite Record Number: 5090Journal Short Form workform?Morse, D. L. J. J. Guzewich J. P. Hanrahan R. Stricof M. Shayegani R. Deibel J. C. Grabau N. A. Nowak J. E. Herrmann G. Cukor N. R. Blacklow1986[Widespread outbreaks of clam- and oyster-associated gastroenteritis: role of Norwalk virus678-681New England Journal of Medicine31411PConsumption of raw shellfish has long been known to be associated with individual cases and sporadic outbreaks of enteric illness. However, during 1982, outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with eating raw shellfish reached epidemic proportions in New York State. Between May 1 and December 31, there were 103 well-documented outbreaks in which 1017 persons became ill: 813 cases were related to eating clams, and 204 to eating oysters. The most common symptoms were diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. Incubation periods were generally 24 to 48 hours long, and the duration of illness was 24 to 48 hours. Bacteriologic analyses of stool and shellfish specimens did not reveal a causative agent. Norwalk virus was implicated as the predominant etiologic agent by clinical features of the illness and by seroconversion and the formation of IgM antibody to Norwalk virus in paired serum samples from persons in five (71 percent) of seven outbreaks in which testing was done. In addition, Norwalk virus was identified by radioimmunoassay in clam and oyster specimens from two of the outbreaks. Determining the source of the shellfish was not always possible, but northeastern coastal waters were implicated. The magnitude, persistence, and widespread nature of these outbreaks raise further questions about the safety of consuming raw shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 5110Journal Short Form workform)?LParrino, T. A. D. S. Schreiber J. S. Trier A. Z. Kapikian and N. R. Blacklow1977BClinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent86-89New England Journal of Medicine2972To examine immunity in viral gastroenteritis, we challenged and then rechallenged 12 volunteers with Norwalk agent and evaluated symptoms, jejunal biopsies and serum antibody. With the first challenge, gastroenteritis developed in six volunteers but not in the others. When rechallenged 27 to 42 months later, the six who became ill initially again had gastroenteritis with jejunal lesions; in the six previously immune volunteers illness or jejunal lesions did not develop. Four of five ill volunteers had increases in serum antibody to Norwalk agent after both challenges. Serum antibody did not increase in three immune volunteers after either challenge. Four volunteers who had twice become ill underwent a third challenge four to eight weeks after their second illness. In one gastroenteritis developed; in three, it did not. These findings indicate two forms of immunity for viral gastroenteritis, one of short and the other of long duration. Factors other than serum antibody appear important in immunity to Norwalk gastroenteritis. ProCite Record Number: 5120Journal Short Form workform? Bodian, D.1957)Mechanisms of infection with polioviruses59-72,Cellular Biology, Nucleic Acids, and VirusesO. V. St. Whitlock (Ed.)New YorkNew York Academy of SciencesProCite Record Number: 5140Book Long Form workformd? Cliver, D. O.1983Manual on food virologyGenevaWorld Health OrganizationProCite Record Number: 5150'Book Long Form workform (33) VPH/83.46.? Cliver, D. O.1990Viruses275-292Foodborne diseases Cliver, D. O. San DiegoAcademic PressProCite Record Number: 5160Book Long Form workformd?Fraenkel-Conrat, Heinz1985<The Viruses: Catalogue, Characterization, and ClassificationNew YorkPlenumProCite Record Number: 5170Book Long Form workform ?Palmenberg, A. C.1987?Comparative organization and genome structure on picornaviruses25-34Positive Strand RNA Viruses*Brinton, Margo A. Roland R. Rueckert (Ed.)New York Alan R. LissPicornviruses are among the smallest eucaryotic, positive-strand RNA viruses. The genome encodes a single, large protein, which is processed by progressive post-translational cleavage into 11-15 different, mature viral peptides. All picornaviruses share a remarkable degree of homology in their genome organization and virion structure, but nucleotide and amino acid sequence comparsions can be used to subdivide the viruses into four groups or genera, which may represent their phylogenic relationships.ProCite Record Number: 5190Book Long Form workform8?Palmenberg, A. C.19891Sequence alignment of piconaviral capsid proteins211-2428Molecular aspects of piconavirus infection and detection$Semler, Bert L. Elie Ehrenfeld (Ed.)Washington, D. C.!American Society for MicrobiologyProCite Record Number: 5200Book Long Form workform ? Sabin, A. B.1957HProperties of attenuated polioviruses and their behavior in human beings113-121,Cellular biology, nucleic acids, and virusesWhitlock, O. V. St..New YorkNew York Academy of SciencesProCite Record Number: 5210Book Long Form workform?,Rose, J. B. X. Zhou D. W. Griffin J. H. Paul1997gComparison of PCR and plaque assay for detection and enumeration of coliphage in polluted marine waters 4564-4566&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6311Polymerase chain-reaction, enteric viruses, RNA-bacteriophages, enteroviruses, hybridization, oysters, model, shellfish, strain, feces(A total of 68 marine samples from various sites impacted by sewage and storm,waters were analyzed by bath the plaque assay and a reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR technique for F+-specific coliphage, The coliphage levels detected by the plaque assay averaged 1.90 x 10(4) PFU/100.0 ml, Using a most probable number (MPN) PCR approach, the levels averaged 2.40 x 10(6) MPN-PCR units/100.0 mi, Two samples were positive by RT-PCR but negative by plaque assay, and 12 samples were positive by plaque assay but negative by RT-PCR (levels lon er than 11.00 PFU/100.0 mi). The host system used for the plaque assay may detect somatic coliphage in addition to the F+-specific coliphage. When it is used as an indicator of pollution, contamination may be missed with more restrictive systems. The difference in results may be due to the sensitivity, specificity, or inhibition of RT-PCR in marine samples. This study provides information on quantifying PCR results by an MPN method and insights into interpretation of PCR data for detection of viruses in marine environments.ProCite Record Number: 5230Journal Article workform=?NHeckert, R. A. M. Best L. T. Jordan G. C. Dulac D. L. Eddington W. G. Sterritt1997EEfficacy of Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide against Exotic Animal Viruses 3916-3918&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6310The efficacy of vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide in a pass-through box for the decontamination of equipment and inanimate materials potentially contaminated with exotic animal viruses was evaluated. Tests were conducted with a variety of viral agents, which included representatives of several virus families (Orthomyxoviridae, Reoviridae, Flaviviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Herpesviridae, Picornaviridae, Caliciviridae, and Rhabdoviridae) from both avian and mammalian species, with particular emphasis on animal viruses exotic to Canada. The effects of the gas on a variety of laboratory equipment were also studied. Virus suspensions in cell culture media, egg fluid, or blood were dried onto glass and stainless steel. Virus viability was assessed after exposure to vaporphase hydrogen peroxide for 30 min. For all viruses tested and under all conditions (except one), the decontamination process reduced the virus titer to 0 embryo-lethal doses for the avian viruses (avian influenza and Newcastle disease viruses) or less than 10 tissue culture infective doses for the mammalian viruses (African swine fever, bluetongue, hog cholera, pseudorabies, swine vesicular disease, vesicular exanthema, and vesicular stomatitis viruses). The laboratory equipment exposed to the gas appeared to suffer no adverse effects. Vaporphase hydrogen peroxide decontamination can be recommended as a safe and efficacious way of removing potentially virus-contaminated objects from biocontainment level III laboratories in which exotic animal disease virus agents are handled. ProCite Record Number: 5250Journal Short Form workformZ?+Gilgen, M. D. Germann, J. Lüthy P. Hübner1997Three-step isolation method for sensitive detection of enterovirus, rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and small round structured viruses in water samples189-199*International Journal of Food Microbiology372-3Control of drinking or bathing water quality in respect to viral contamination remains an unsolved problem. A highly sensitive isolation protocol was developed for concentration and detection of different enteric viruses from water samples. The three-step isolation procedure combines filtration with a positively charged nylon membrane, ultrafiltration and clean-up of the viral RNA with a silica based membrane. Detection of the viral RNA is accomplished by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Detection limits were determined to be one 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50) of seeded coxsackievirus B2 or hepatitis A Virus per litre of tap water by RT-PCR compared to two orders of magnitude lower sensitivity for culture in the case of coxsackievirus B2. The isolation procedure is highly sensitive, easy to perform and allows the detection of different human pathogenic virus groups in one water sample. The application of the isolation procedure to six river water samples and subsequent detection with nested or semi-nested PCR revealed enterovirus in 6/6 (100%), rotavirus in 6/6 (100%), hepatitis A virus in 0/6 (0%), small round structured virus genotype I in 6/6 (100%) and small round structured virus genotype II in 2/6 (33%) of the samples. These findings suggest that first, we have developed a very sensitive detection procedure and second, that river water in Switzerland-where most of the wastewater is handled by sewage treatment plants-shows a high contamination rate with enteric viruses. ProCite Record Number: 5260Journal Short Form workform?\Atmar, R. L. F. H. Neill J. L. Romalde F. Le Guyader C. M. Woodley T. G. Metcalf M. K. Estes1995RDetection of Norwalk virus and hepatitis A virus in shellfish tissues with the PCR 3014-3018&Applied and Environmental Microbiology618WA method for the detection of Norwalk virus and hepatitis A virus from shellfish tissues by PCR was developed. Virus was added to the stomach and hepatopancreatic tissues of oysters or hard-shell clams, and viral nucleic acids were purified by a modification of a previously described method (R.L. Atmar, T.G. Metcalf, F.H. Neill, and M.K. Estes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:631-635, 1993). The new method had the following advantages compared with the previously described method: (i) more rapid sample processing; (ii) increased test sensitivity; (iii) decreased sample-associated interference with reverse transcription-PCR; and (iv) use of chloroform-butanol in place of the chlorofluorocarbon trichlorotrifluoroethane. In addition, internal standards for both Norwalk virus and hepatitis A virus were made which demonstrated when inhibitors to reverse transcription-PCR were present and allowed quantitation of the viral nucleic acids present in samples. This assay can be used to investigate shellfish-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks and to study factors involved in virus persistence in shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 5280Journal Short Form workform?,Berg, G. D. R. Dahling G. A. Brown D. Berman1978Validity of fecal coliforms, total coliforms, and fecal streptococci as indicators of viruses in chlorinated primary sewage effluents880-884&Applied and Environmental Microbiology366Quantities of combined chlorine that usually destroyed more than 99.999% of the indigenous fecal coliforms, total coliforms, and fecal streptococci in primary sewage effluents destroyed only 85 to 99% of the indigenous viruses present. Viruses were recovered from five of eight chlorinated primary effluents from which fecal coliforms were not recovered by standard most-probable-number procedures. The limited volumes of such chlorinated effluents that can be tested for indicator bacteria with currently available multiple-tube and membrane filter techniques restrict the value of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and even total coliforms as indicators of viruses in these effluents. Although fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci are useful indicators of viruses in effluents from which these bacteria are recovered, the absence of these bacteria and even total coliforms from disinfected effluents (in standard tests) does not assure that viruses are also absent. ProCite Record Number: 5290Journal Short Form workform??Green, J. K. Henshilwood C. I. Gallimore D. G. Brown D. N. Lees1998A nested reverse transcriptase PCR Assay for detection of small round-structured viruses in environmentally contaminated molluscan shellfish858-863&Applied and Environmental Microbiology643We describe the evaluation of a nested reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) procedure for the detection of small round-structured viruses (SRSVs) in molluscan shellfish and the application of this assay for the detection of SRSVs in commercially produced shellfish and in shellfish implicated in outbreaks of gastroenteritis. The range of virus strains detected and the sensitivity of detection were evaluated by using a representative panel of 21 well-characterized SRSV strains. The nested RT-PCR detected 15 of 21 SRSVs, demonstrating that the assay detects a broad range of SRSVs including strains from both genogroup I and genogroup II. Seeding experiments showed the nested RT-PCR assay to be 10 to 1,000 times more sensitive than the single-round RT-PCR assay for the detection of SRSV in shellfish. SRSV-contaminated samples were identified by nested RT-PCR for shellfish grown in polluted harvesting areas and for shellfish associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis which were negative by a previously described single-round RT-PCR. The assay was shown to be effective for investigation of virus elimination during commercial shellfish processing procedures such as depuration and relaying and has potential applications for monitoring at-risk shellfish harvesting areas, for investigation of SRSV contamination in shellfish from producers linked to gastroenteritis outbreaks, and for the direct detection of virus in shellfish implicated in outbreaks.ProCite Record Number: 5310Journal Short Form workform'?MHill, W. E. S. P. Keasler M. W. Trucksess P. Feng C. A. Kaysner K. A. Lampel.1991bPolymerase chain reaction identification of Vibrio vulnificus in artificially contaminated oysters707-711&Applied and Environmental Microbiology573DNAs extracted from Vibrio vulnificus seeded into oyster homogenates were evaluated as templates for the polymerase chain reaction. Several extraction procedures were examined, and it was determined that DNA recovered from cells lysed by guanidine isothiocyanate, extracted with chloroform, and precipitated with ethanol was most suitable for use as a polymerase chain reaction template. The region targeted was a 519-bp portion of the cytotoxin-hemolysin gene of V. vulnificus. This region was amplified only when DNA from this species was present in the homogenate. V. vulnificus seeded into oyster homogenates at an initial level of 10(2) CFU/g of oyster meat was consistently observed after 24 h of incubation in alkaline peptone water. ProCite Record Number: 5320Journal Short Form workform?Richards, G. P.1988HMicrobial purification of shellfish: A review of depuration and relaying218-251Journal of Food Protection513A review of the literature on shellfish depuration and relaying revealed wide diversity in microbial uptake and elimination among shellfish species and for different microorganisms. Information on relaying of five commercial shellfish species and on controlled purification (depuration) of 11 species indicates that such processes are effective in reducing the levels of bioconcentrated bacteria and viruses from shellfish. The degree of bacterial and viral bioconcentration varies with shellfish species; however, the primary sites of bioconcentration are the hepatopancreas and digestive diverticula. Low levels of enteric viruses and coliphage may be sequestered in shellfish hemolymph and tissues, thus protecting them from elimination through depurative processes. Vibrio spp. appear to proliferate when closely associated with intestinal cells of shellfish. Shellfish relaying techniques offer effective microbial depletion provided water quality is acceptable and shellfish remain physiologically active. The current body of literature on controlled purification demonstrates a broad spectrum of conditions under which shellfish are depurated. Optimal times, temperatures and salinities for effective depuration vary among shellfish species. Proper design and operation of depuration plants is crucial to insure process integrity. Recirculating and flowthrough purification systems are effective in reducing the levels of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms from shellfish, but the extent to which they reduce viruses from shellfish is uncertain, Studies are needed to validate the effectiveness of depuration processes in eliminating pathogenic viruses and to address the adequacy of indicator bacteria as measures of enteric virus contamination.ProCite Record Number: 5330Journal Article workformc?1Schwab, K. J. M. K. Estes F. H. Neill R. L. Atmar1997Use of heat release and and internal RNA standard control in reverse transcription-PCR detectiojn of Norwalk virus from stool samples511-514 Journal of Clinical Microbiology352Polymerase chain-reaction, hepatitis A virus, round-structure viruses, acute gastroenteritis, fecal specimens, outbreaks, purification, epidemiology, shellfish, diversityvNorwalk virus (NV) and the Nonvalk-like viruses are important human pathogens that cause epidemic acute viral gastroenteritis. Current techniques used to recover NV from clinical samples involve multistep viral extraction and elution procedures with subsequent viral detection by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). In this study, a simple method using heat to recover viral RNA from 45 stool samples was compared to a conventional viral RNA extraction technique, with subsequent analysis by RT-PCR. In addition, we used an internal RNA standard for the detection of inhibitors present in processed samples. Our results indicate that the use of heat to recover NV RNA from stool samples has a sensitivity for the detection of NV RNA that is similar to the more labor-intensive, time-consuming, conventional RNA extraction technique. The use of an RNA internal standard permits the detection of inhibitors present in processed samples, allowing the identification of false negatives. The standard we developed has the advantage of allowing differential detection between wild-type viral RNA and standard using internal oligoprobe hybridizationProCite Record Number: 5340Journal Article workform?iAndo, T. Q. Jin J. R. Gentsch S. S. Monroe J. S. Noel S. F. Dowell H. G. Cicirello M. A. Kohn R. I. Glass1995Epidemiologic applications of novel molecular methods to detect and differentiate small round structured viruses (Norwalk-like viruses)145-152Journal of Medical Virology472W(Original) Small round structured viruses(SRSVs), Norwalk-like viruses, gastroenteritisThe molecular epidemiology of a large, multistate outbreak of oyster-associated gastroenteritis [Kohn et al. (1995): Journal of the American Medical Association 273:466-471. Dowell et al. (1995): Journal of Infectious Diseases 171:1497-1503.] was examined using new methods to detect small round structured viruses (SRSVs) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and to characterize strains by Southern hybridization and nucleotide sequencing of 81-bp of a PCR product amplified from the RNA polymerase gene. Of 37 stool specimens examined from patients in eight clusters of the multistate outbreak, 32 (86%) gave RT-PCR products specific for SRSVs of P1-A phylogenetic group. Nineteen PCR products from the eight clusters were confirmed to have the identical sequence, indicating that this large outbreak was attributed to a single strain of SRSV. In one of the eight clusters, five (63%) of eight patients had a mixed infection with a second SRSV strain that belonged to P2-B phylogenetic group. Of 12 specimens from patients in five other outbreaks and one sporadic case which occurred at the same time as the multistate outbreak, 10 (83%) gave products specific for SRSVs representing four phylogenetic groups (P1-A, P1-B, P2-A, and P2-B). The sequences of the P1-A products from two outbreaks and that of the P2-B product from another outbreak were identical to the P1-A sequence from the eight clusters and the P2-B sequence from the one cluster of the multistate outbreak, respectively. These results demonstrate the first application of these methods to enhance our understanding of the molecular epidemiology of SRSVs and provide answers of public health interest that could not have been obtained using classical epidemiologic methods alone. ProCite Record Number: 5360Journal Short Form workform?EAndreoletti, L. D. Hober S. Belaich P. E. Lobert A. Dewilde P. Wattre1996hRapid detection of enterovirus in clinical specimens using PCR and microwell capture hybridization assay1-10Journal of Virological Methods621\(Original) RT-PCR, microwell capture hybridization, nested-PCR, enterovirus, rapid diagnosisA rapid detection method of enteroviral RNA in clinical samples using PCR and a microwell capture hybridization assay is described. PCR products were labelled directly by digoxigenin-dUTP during the amplification step. The labelled amplicons were hybridized with a biotinylated oligo-probe and captured on commercially available test microwells coated with streptavidin. The hybridized amplicons labelled with digoxigenin were detected using anti-digoxigenin Fab fragments conjugated to peroxidase and colorimetric reaction automatically measured. This method detected as few as 0.01 PFU/100 microl of biological sample with a result obtained within 8 h. Using this method, we were able to detect enteroviral RNA in 23 of 35 clinical specimens from 16 of 17 patients with suspected acute or chronic enteroviral infection. The samples included cerebrospinal fluid, broncho-pulmonary lavage, pericardial effusion, throat swabs, stools, sera, muscular and myocardial biopsies. In contrast, virus was isolated in cell culture in only 8 of 28 clinical specimens from 6 of the 17 patients. This easy-to-perform assay has useful potential in the rapid detection of enterovirus in acute or chronic infection. This methodology could be used for a rapid qualitative detection of other RNA viruses. ProCite Record Number: 5370Journal Short Form workformm?fBoom, R. C. J. A. Sol M. M. M. Salimans C. L. Jansen P. M. E. Wertheim-van Dillen J. van der Noordaa.19909Rapid and simple method for purification of nucleic acids495-503 Journal of Clinical Microbiology283AWe have developed a simple, rapid, and reliable protocol for the small-scale purification of DNA and RNA from, e.g., human serum and urine. The method is based on the lysing and nuclease-inactivating properties of the chaotropic agent guanidinium thiocyanate together with the nucleic acid-binding properties of silica particles or diatoms in the presence of this agent. By using size-fractionated silica particles, nucleic acids (covalently closed circular, relaxed circular, and linear double-stranded DNA; single-stranded DNA; and rRNA) could be purified from 12 different specimens in less than 1 h and were recovered in the initial reaction vessel. Purified DNA (although significantly sheared) was a good substrate for restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase and was recovered with high yields (usually over 50%) from the picogram to the microgram level. Copurified rRNA was recovered almost undegraded. Substituting size-fractionated silica particles for diatoms (the fossilized cell walls of unicellular algae) allowed for the purification of microgram amounts of genomic DNA, plasmid DNA, and rRNA from cell-rich sources, as exemplified for pathogenic gram-negative bacteria. In this paper, we show representative experiments illustrating some characteristics of the procedure which may have wide application in clinical microbiology. ProCite Record Number: 5390Journal Short Form workform ?+Cromeans, T. L. O. V. Nainan H. S. Margolis19971Detection of hepatitis A virus RNA in oyster meat 2460-2463&Applied and Environmental Microbiology636Detection of low concentrations of viruses in shellfish is possible with nucleic acid amplification by PCR. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) has been detected in oyster meat by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). We developed a method to identify HAV RNA by RT-PCR of total RNA extracted from oyster meat contaminated by adsorption, bioaccumulation, or injection. With dot blot hybridization detection of amplicons from the RT-PCR, rapid screening of a large number of samples is feasible. As few as 8 PFU of HAV/g of oyster meat can be detected. ProCite Record Number: 5400Journal Short Form workformJ?-Cubitt, W. D. S. J. Jiang J. Wang M. K. Estes1994MSequence similarity of human caliciviruses and small round structured viruses252-258Journal of Medical Virology433i(Original) Calicivirus, small round structured virus, norwalk virus, RT-PCR, sequence, enzyme/immunoassayThe application of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primers directed to the RNA dependent RNA polymerase region within ORF1 of Norwalk virus (NV) showed that 31 percent of morphologically typical human caliciviruses (HuCV) and 57% of small round structured viruses (SRSVs) produced a product of 470 bp similar to the NV control, NV 8FIIa/68/US. Alignment of the amino acid sequences of morphologically typical HuCVs with previously published sequences for SRSVs, NV, and Snow Mountain agent (SMA) showed a high degree of homology (90-92%) with SMA and a lesser extent of homology with NV (60-61%). The amino acid sequence of two strains of HuCV, HuCV/3C/92/UK, and HuCV/5C/92/UK differed by only one or two amino acids respectively in the RNA dependent RNA polymerase region from that of two strains of SRSV obtained from children in the United Kingdom, SRSV/4S/90/UK and Japan, SRSV/OTH-25/89/J which were found to have identical amino acid sequences. The use of an EIA for detection of NV antigen employing antisera raised to recombinant NV protein indicated that HuCVs and SRSVs obtained from children and adults in the United Kingdom were antigenically distinct from the prototype Norwalk virus, NV/8fIIa/68/USProCite Record Number: 5410Journal Short Form workform?Fujito, B. T. C. D. Lytle19964Elution of viruses by ionic and nonionic surfactants 3470-3473&Applied and Environmental Microbiology629The ionic and nonionic surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate and Triton X-100, respectively, eluted two viruses, phi X174 and PRD1, which were adsorbed to the ionic and nonionic binding membranes cationic polysulfone and nitrocellulose, respectively. Results indicated that complete elution was readily achieved only when combinations of surfactants and binding membranes were matched (i.e., ionic-ionic or nonionic-nonionic). ProCite Record Number: 5430Journal Short Form workform?&Goswami, B. B. W. H. Koch T. A. Cebula1993vDetection of hepatitis A virus in Mercenaria mercenaria by coupled reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction 2765-2770&Applied and Environmental Microbiology599Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major cause of infectious hepatitis in humans. In this respect, bivalve mollusks pose a major health concern because they are filter feeders and can concentrate the virus up to 900-fold from contaminated water. Detection of HAV has been hampered because wild-type HAV grows poorly if at all in cell culture. Here we describe a technique for the detection of HAV in shellfish based on reverse transcription coupled with the polymerase chain reaction. RNA is isolated from hard-shell clam tissue and reverse transcribed with avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase. A portion of the cDNA pool is then amplified with primers specific for HAV. In experiments with an in vitro-synthesized HAV transcript, we were able to detect HAV sequence in the presence of a 200-million-fold excess of shellfish RNA. When intact virus was added to shellfish tissue before the isolation of RNA, the method was capable of detecting 10 viral RNA molecules in a reaction mixture. ProCite Record Number: 5440Journal Short Form workform?7Green, J. J. P. Norcott D. Lewis C. Arnold D.W.G. Brown1993UNorwalk-like viruses: Demonstration of genomic diversity by polymerase chain reaction 3007-3012 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3111A reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification procedure was developed for the detection of Norwalk-like viruses in fecal specimens. Ninety-nine fecal specimens collected in the United Kingdom and containing small round-structured virus particles as determined by electron microscopy were tested. They came from 50 outbreaks and 16 sporadic cases of viral gastroenteritis. RT-PCR products of the appropriate size for Norwalk virus RNA were detected in 15 specimens from three outbreaks, suggesting that viruses closely related to Norwalk virus have not been circulating widely in the United Kingdom in recent years. From four isolates, the RT-PCR amplification products of two genomic regions were sequenced and the degree of genomic variation was compared. DNA sequencing of the PCR products revealed strong similarities among strains from the United Kingdom (approximately 97% for both regions amplified) but significant differences from Norwalk virus (67 to 78%). All of the viruses detected by RT-PCR were classified as serotype UK2 by solid-phase immune electron microscopy or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. These findings provide evidence of a genomic relationship between Norwalk virus and serotype UK2 small round-structured viruses.ProCite Record Number: 5460Journal Short Form workformB?Jiang, X. J. Wang M. K. Estes1995>Characterization of SRSVs using RT-PCR and a new antigen ELISA363-374Archives of Virology1402h(Summary) Stool samples from 451 patients involved in volunteer studies, 26 outbreaks and approximately 175 sporadic cases of acute gastroenteritis from different geographical locations in the world were tested for Norwalk virus (NV) using a newly developed antigen ELISA and RT-PCR. NV was detected in most outbreaks previously characterized as being of NV origin. Overall, a low number of positives for NV was obtained using either RT-PCR with primers that amplified a unique region of the genome, or an ELISA with hyperimmune antisera made to the baculovirus-expressed recombinant NV capsid. However, a significant number of positives was obtained when these samples were tested by RT-PCR using primers that amplified the more highly conserved regions of the genome. Sequence analysis of the amplified viral cDNAs indicated that small round structured viruses (SRSVs) with a wide range of variable genomic sequences (44-87% nucleotide and 31-99% amino acid similarity to the 8Flla NV genome sequence) were responsible for these outbreaks. Several recent outbreaks from the US, Japan and the UK were related to the Snow Mountain Agent (SMA) by sequence analyses. Continued accumulation of sequence information will facilitate the design of new primers for virus detection and increase our understanding of the relationships and epidemiology of these viruses from different sources. ProCite Record Number: 5480Journal Article workform?%Jiang, X. M. Wang K. Wang M. K. Estes19932Sequence and genomic organization of Norwalk virus51-61Virology1951A library of overlapping cDNAs obtained from Norwalk virus purified from stools of human volunteers (Jiang et al., 1990, Science 250, 1580-1583) was used to obtain the nucleotide sequence of the viral genome. The sequence has a total of 7642 nucleotides, excluding the 3' poly(A) tail, and has a base composition of 48% G + C. Three open reading frames (ORF) are predicted in the sequence. The longest ORF (ORF1, nucleotides (nt) 146 to 5359) is predicted to encode a polyprotein precursor to nonstructural proteins based on identification of sequences similar to the picornavirus 2C protein, 3C protease, and 3D RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. ORF2 (nt 5346 to 6935) is predicted to encode a polypeptide with a predicted molecular weight of 56,571 (56.6K, close to the expected size of the viral capsid protein), and it contains a short region of sequence similarity to the picornavirus structural protein VP3. A third potential ORF (nt 6938 to 7573) could encode a small polypeptide of 22.5K. The genomic organization found in Norwalk virus shares striking similarities with the genome of two caliciviruses, the feline calicivirus and the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus. The morphology, size, polarity, and genomic organization of the Norwalk virus indicate it is a member of the Caliciviridae family. ProCite Record Number: 5490Journal Article workform?sKohn, M. A. T. A. Farley T. Ando M. Curtis S. A. Wilson Q. Jin S. S. Monroe R. C. Baron L. M. McFarland R. I. Glass1995~An outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis associated with eating raw oysters: Implicatons for maintaining safe oyster beds466-471+Journal of the American Medical Association2736OBJECTIVE--To determine the characteristics and the cause of an outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with eating raw oysters. DESIGN--Survey of groups of persons reporting illness to the health department after eating oysters; survey of convenience sample of oyster harvesters; and tracing of implicated oysters. SETTING--General community. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Relative risk for illness after oyster consumption, source bed of contaminated oysters, presence of antibodies to Norwalk virus in serum, presence of a Norwalk virus in stool by direct electron microscopy and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and DNA sequences of RT-PCR products. RESULTS--Seventy (83%) of 84 persons who ate raw oysters became ill vs three (7%) of 43 people who did not eat raw oysters (relative risk, 11.9; 95% confidence interval, 4.0 to 34.2). Eleven (79%) of 14 serum pairs had at least a fourfold increase in antibody to Norwalk virus. All 12 stool samples tested were positive by electron microscopy and/or RT-PCR for Norwalk virus. The RT-PCR products from all seven stool samples tested had identical DNA sequences. Implicated oysters were harvested November 9 through 13, 1993, from a remote oyster bed. Crews from 22 (85%) of 26 oyster harvesting boats working in this area reported routine overboard disposal of sewage. One harvester with a high level of antibodies to Norwalk virus reported having gastroenteritis November 7 through 10 and overboard disposal of feces into the oyster bed. CONCLUSIONS--This outbreak was caused by contamination of oysters in the oyster bed, probably by stool from one or more ill harvesters. Education of oyster harvesters and enforcement of regulations governing waste disposal by oyster harvesting boats might prevent similar outbreaks. ProCite Record Number: 5510Journal Short Form workform?3Lambden, P. R. E. O. Caul C. R. Ashley I. N. Clarke1993WSequence and genone organization of a human small round-structured (Norwalk-like) virus516-519Science2595094Small round-structured viruses (SRSVs), also known as Norwalk or Norwalk-like viruses, are the major worldwide cause of acute, epidemic nonbacterial gastroenteritis in humans. These viruses, which contain a single-stranded RNA genome, have remained refractory to molecular characterization because of the small amounts of virus in clinical samples and the absence of an animal model and an in vitro culture system. The complete genomic nucleotide sequence of an SRSV, Southampton virus, was determined. The 7696-nucleotide RNA genome encodes three open reading frames whose sequences and organization strongly support proposals that SRVSs are members of the Caliciviridae. ProCite Record Number: 5520Journal Short Form workform?0Liu, B. L. I. N. Clarke E. O. Caul P. R. Lambden1995iHuman enteric caliciviruses have a unique genome structure and are distinct from the Norwalk-like viruses 1345-1356Archives of Virology1408(Summary) Classic human enteric caliciviruses (HuCVs) have a distinctive morphology and are primarily associated with pediatric acute gastroenteritis. Although morphologically distinct from the small round structured viruses (SRSVs), the classic HuCVs are thought to be closely related and were anticipated to have a similar genome organisation. We report the first genome sequence and molecular characterisation of a classic human enteric calicivirus associated with a case of acute vomiting and diarrhoea in an infant. The RNA genome (7266 nt) is smaller than the genome of SRSVs from the two genetic groups and has a unique arrangement of open reading frames. Further analysis of the 3' terminal 3 kb from a second unrelated isolate confirmed this genomic organisation. Analysis of capsid and RNA polymerase sequences together with the unique genomic organisation of classic HuCV suggest these viruses are more closely related to the animal caliciviruses than the enteric SRSV group of viruses. ProCite Record Number: 5550Journal Short Form workform?[Matson, D. O. W. M. Zhong S. Nakata K. Numata X. Jiang L. K. Pickering S. Chiba M. K. Estes1995Molecular characterization of a human calicivirus with sequence relationships closer to animal caliciviruses than other known human caliciviruses215-222Journal of Medical Virology452*(Original) Gastroenteritis, agents, genomecDNA clones were produced from a morphologically typical human calicivirus (HuCV) in stool specimens collected in 1982 during an outbreak of gastroenteritis in Sapporo, Japan. The cDNA clones were generated separately in two laboratories by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primers 35 and 36 derived from Norwalk virus. The RT-PCR product from six specimens was of the predicted size, had a continuous protein encoding frame on the positive strand, and contained GLPS and YGDD amino acid motifs at the predicted distance from the primers. RT-PCR amplification with primer 35 and a HuCV/Sapporo-specific primer 36 of four HuCV/Sapporo-positive stool specimens from a 1986 Houston day care center outbreak yielded products with 93% nucleotide and 99% predicted amino acid sequence identity with the HuCV/Sapporo strain from the 1982 outbreak. The HuCV/Sapporo strains are genetically distinct from previously characterized HuCVs and more closely related to known animal CVs than other known HuCVs. ProCite Record Number: 5560Journal Article workform?Puissant, C. L. M. Houdebine1990vAn improvement of the single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction148-149 Biotechniques82ProCite Record Number: 5580Journal Short Form workformL?zWeltman, A. C. N. M. Bennett J. H. Misage J. J. Campana L. S. Fine A. S. Doniger G. J. Balzano D. A. Ackman G. S. Birkhead19944Multi-county outbreak of hepatitis A, New York StateS80 American Journal of Epidemiology13911ProCite Record Number: 55901Journal Short Form workform (42) Meeting abstract?1Witham, P. K. C.T. Yamashiro K.J. Livak C.A. Batt1996]A PCR-based assay for the detection of Escherichia coli Shiga-like toxin genes in ground beef 1347-1353&Applied and Environmental Microbiology624A detection system based on the PCR has been developed for Escherichia coli strains which harbor the Shiga-like toxin genes. This quantitative detection system involves the 5'-->3' nuclease activity of Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase, which cleaves an internal oligonucleotide probe that has been labeled with both a fluorescent reporter dye (6-carboxy-fluorescein [FAM]) and a quencher dye (6-carboxytetramethyl-rhodamine [TAMRA]). Parameters which affected the performance of the assay included primer probe distance, probe concentration, and probe target sequence homology. The optimized assay format includes two PCR primers that generate a 497-bp amplicon specific for the sltI gene with the fluorogenic probe located 19 bp from the upstream PCR primer. When the distance between the upstream PCR primer and the probe was reduced from 190 to 19 bp, delta RQ values increased from approximately 1.5 to 3.0. The delta RQ for Shiga-like toxin I probe 102 reached a maximum of 4.15 at concentrations between 25 and 50 nM. The assay is sensitive and can detect approximately 10 +/- 5 CFU per PCR. As few as 0.5 CFU of Shiga-like toxin I-producing E. coli per g could be detected in ground beef with only 12 h of enrichment in modified E. coli broth. ProCite Record Number: 5610Journal Article workform?Hay, B. P. Scotti1986WEvidence for intracellualr absorption of virus by the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas655-6596New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research20(Original) Viruses, picornaviruses, cricket paralysis virus, shellfish, Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, depuration, intracellular absorption, health, human nutrition, food contamination, effluent, autoradiographyThe accumulation and release of virus by the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, was studied by autoradiographic methods. An insect picornavirus, cricket paralysis virus, was used as a model because of its taxonomic similarity to the human enteroviruses that might be encountered in effluent contaminated sea water. High concentration of label accumulated in the mucus in the digestive tract when oysters were placed in sea water containing radioactively-labelled virus. Lesser concentrations appeared in the epithelial cells of the digestive diverticular tubules and mid-gut and in the connective tissues surrounding the disgestive tract. Label was not apparent in the tissues of the gonads, gills, mantle, muscle, or labial palps. The ammount of labelin the mucus of the mid-gut decreased during depuration. However, label persisted in the gut epithelium and connective tissue even after 64h depuration. The distribution of radioactivity in the tissues was the same for both nucleic acid and protein coat-labelled particles, suggesting hat the virus maintained its integrity. These results provide further evidence that total removal of virus from shellfish by depuration is unsucessful.ProCite Record Number: 5620Journal Short Form workformP? +Abad, F. X. R. M. Pinto R. Gajardo A. Bosch1997=Viruses in mussels: Public health implications and depuration677-681Journal of Food Protection606(Original) Viruses, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, shellfish, hepatitis-A virus, enteric viruses, escherichia-coli, human rotavirus, oysters, enteroviruses, consumption, poliovirus, coliphageStudies were conducted in the common musset (Mytilus spp.) to evaluate the public health implications derived from shellfish contamination with human pathogenic enteric viruses. In bioaccumulation experiments, we could verify that after 6 h of immersion of mussels in marine water contaminated with high levels of clay-associated enteric adenovirus (type 40) and human rotavirus (type 3), between 4 to 56% of the seeded viruses were adsorbed to shellfish tissues, mainly in the gills and digestive tract. We investigated the occurrence of wild-type enteric viruses in mussels from sites with different levels of fecal pollution. Pathogenic viruses could be detected in mussels from areas that, following current standards based on bacteriological quality, should be regarded as unpolluted, safe for swimming, and suitable for harvesting shellfish. Cooking experiments performed with contaminated mussels revealed that 5 min after the opening of the mussel valves, rotaviruses and hepatitis A virus could still be recovered in steamed shellfish. Under commercial depuration conditions, health-significant enteric viruses, such as rotavirus and hepatitis A virus, could be recovered from bivalves after 96 h of immersion in a continuous how of ozonated marine water. Routine screening of bivalves for the presence of health-significant enteric viruses before public consumption may help in the prevention of outbreaks among shellfish consumers.ProCite Record Number: 5640Journal Short Form workform? Gerba, C. P. S. M. Goyal1978BDetection and occurrence of enteric viruses in shellfish: A review743-754Journal of Food Protection419During feeding, bivalve mollusks (oysters, mussels and clams) can accumulate pathogenic human enteric viruses when present in sewage-polluted seawater. It has been well established that infectious hepatitis virus is transmitted by consumption of raw or inadequately cooked shellfish. But because of the lack of epidemiologic techniques, transmission of other enteric viruses by shellfish has not been established. Other enteric viruses, such as polio, echo, coxsackie and reo, have been detected in shellfish. Enteroviruses have been detected in shellfish taken from both "open" and "closed" areas, based on bacteriological standards used at present in the United States. Field and laboratory studies have indicated that enteric viruses can survive for long periods in seawater and in shellfish. Recent advances in methodology have led to development of more rapid and less expensive methods for detection of a greater number of enteric viruses in shellfish.ProCite Record Number: 5650Journal Short Form workform1S&t7KsCotten, M. Oberhauser, B. Brunar, H. Holzner, A. Issakides, G. Noe, C. R. Schaffner, G. Wagner, E. Birnstiel, M. L.19912'-O-methyl, 2'-O-ethyl oligoribonucleotides and phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotides as inhibitors of the in vitro U7 snRNP-dependent mRNA processing event2629-35Nucleic Acids Res1910Base Sequence Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid Histones/biosynthesis Methylation Molecular Sequence Data Nucleic Acid Conformation Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/chemistry/*pharmacology Oligoribonucleotides/chemistry/*pharmacology Rna RNA Processing, Post-Transcriptional/*drug effects RNA, Antisense Ribonucleoproteins/drug effects/*physiology Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear Thionucleotides/*pharmacologyMay 25We describe the synthesis of 2'-O-methyl, 2'-O-ethyl oligoribonucleotides and phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotides and demonstrate their utility as inhibitors of the in vitro U7 snRNP-dependent mRNA processing event. These 2'-O-modified compounds were designed to possess the bi? Atmar, R. L. F. H. Neill C. M. Woodley R. Manger G. S. Fout W. Burkhardt L. Leja E. R. McGovern F. Le Guyader T. G. Metcalf M. K. Estes1996cCollaborative evaluation of a method for the detection of Norwalk virus in shellfish tissues by PCR254-258&Applied and Environmental Microbiology621=A multicenter, collaborative trial was performed to evaluate the reliability and reproducibility of a previously described method for the detection of Norwalk virus in shellfish tissues with the PCR (R.L. Atmar, F. H. Neill, J. L. Romalde, F. Le Guyader, C. M. Woodley, T. G. Metcalf, and M. K. Estes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3014-3018, 1995). Virus was added to the stomachs and hepatopancreatic tissues of oysters or hard-shell clams in the control laboratory, the samples were shipped to the participating laboratories, and viral nucleic acids were extracted and then detected by reverse transcription-PCR. The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 85 and 91%, respectively, when results were determined by visual inspection of ethidium bromide-stained agarose gels; the test sensitivity and specificity improved to 87 and 100%, respectively, after confirmation by hybridization with a digoxigenin-labeled, virus-specific probe. We have demonstrated that this method can be implemented successfully by several laboratories to detect Norwalk virus in shellfish tissues. ProCite Record Number: 5680Journal Short Form workform?3Xu, Z. Y. Z. H. Li J. X. Wang Z. P. Xiao D. X. Dong1992WEcology and prevention of a shellfish-associated hepatitis A epidemic in Shangai, ChinaS67-S68Vaccine101A(Original) Hepatitis A, shellfish, epidemic, prevention, ShanghaiDuring a shellfish-borne hepatitis A outbreak in Shanghai during the first quarter of 1988, 300,000 cases were reported in two months. Using cell culture and experimental infection of marmosets, hepatitis A virus (HAV) was isolated from clams collected from the market and the sea bed during the epidemic. A dose-response curve correlating the quantity of clams consumed to the attack rate of hepatitis A was well documented. The occurrence of the epidemic was associated with a good harvest of clams in a new area, serious pollution of this area with sewage and importation of the clams in large quantities into Shanghai where most young adults were susceptible. Clams can apparently be decontaminated by using a continuous water flow. In this way, HAV titres can be reduced by 90% in one day and by 99.9% in two weeks. An attenuated live HAV vaccine which has been developed in China has been shown to be safe and immunogenic and may be used for prevention of such epidemics in the future. ProCite Record Number: 5700Journal Article workform?Metcalf, T. G.1978'Indicators of viruses in water and food Ann ArborAnn Arbor Science, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 5710%Book Whole workform (16) Berg, G. Ed.O?Rueckert, R. R.1996Fields Virology PhiladelphiaLippincott-Raven PublishersThirdProCite Record Number: 5720RBook Whole workform (16) B. N. Fields (16) D. M. Knipe (16) P. M. Howley (17) eds.?/Snead, M. C. V.P. Olivieri K. Kawata C.W. Kruse1980zThe effectiveness of chlorine residuals in inactivation of bacteria and viruses introduced by post-treatment contamination403-408Water Research14The protection afforded the water consumer by the maintenance of a free or combined chlorine residual in water distribution systems was evaluated in a laboratory system provide with a simulated cross connection. Tap water, adjusted to the appropriate pH. temperature and chlorine residual, was challenged with varying levels of autoclaved sewage seeded with Shigella sonnei, Salmonella typhimurium, a coliform (IMVIC++--), poliovirus 1 and f 2 bacterial virus. Comparative survivals of these microorganisms were evaluated over 2 h periods. As expected, microbial inactivation was increased by lower pH, higher temperature, higher initial chlorine concentration and lower sewage concentration. An initial free chlorine residual was more effective than an equivalent initial combined chlorine residual. Generally, S. sonnei, S. typhimurium and the coliform organism were inactivated at the same rate but poliovirus 1 was more resistant and f2 was the most resistant. At pH 8, with an initial free chlorine residual of 0.7 mg/l, and added sewage levels of up to 1% by vol, 3 logs or greater bacterial inactivation was obtained within 60 min. Viral inactivation under these conditions was less than 2 logs. ProCite Record Number: 5730Journal Article workformi?Hedberg, C. W. M. T. Osterholm1993<Outbreaks of food-borne and waterborne viral gastroenteritis199-210Clinical Microbiology Reviews638Review, food-borne outbreak, waterborne, gastroenteritisKNorwalk virus infection is the epidemiologic prototype for outbreaks of food-borne and waterborne gastroenteritis. Around the world, Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like viruses appear to be major causes of food-borne and waterborne illness. Assessment of the overall significance of viral agents to the epidemiology of food-borne and waterborne illness is hampered by the lack of surveillance throughout much of the world. In areas where food-borne and waterborne illness surveillance is conducted, outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis are underreported because of the lack of availability of routine laboratory services to confirm the viral etiology. Routine use of epidemiologic criteria as an alternative to laboratory confirmation will allow better assessments of the importance of viral gastroenteritis until effective laboratory methods can be widely implemented. Outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis have been propagated by contamination of water supplies, raw foods, and ill food handlers. Controlling an outbreak depends on identifying and removing the source of contamination. The demonstrated occurrence of person-to-person transmission and the likely occurrence of transmission of Norwalk-like viruses by aerosol make it necessary to evaluate the potential for transmission by food handlers and servers in every outbreak, regardless of primary source. ProCite Record Number: 5740Journal Short Form workform?VJiang, X. W. D. Cubitt T. Berke W. Zhong X. Dai S. Nakata L. K. Pickering D. O. Matson1997JSapporo-like human caliciviruses are genetically and antigenically diverse 1813-1827Archives of Virology1429m(Summary) The Sapporo-like human caliciviruses (HuCVs) comprise one of three genogroups of HuCVs associated with acute gastroenteritis. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that Sapporo-like HuCVs are related more closely to animal caliciviruses than to other known HuCVs. We produced 3.2 kb cDNA fragments from the 3' end to three Sapporo-like HuCVs that were associated with acute gastroenteritis in children (Houston/86, Houston/90, and London/92). Sequence analysis of the 3.2 kb cDNAs showed that two of the three viruses had a genomic organization similar to that of other Sapporo-like strains and the third strain (London/92) lacked an open reading frame overlapping the 5' end of the capsid gene. Alignment of the capsid sequences of these three strains showed 44-78% amino acid identity among the three strains. Phylogenetic analysis of the aligned sequences indicated the three strains are related but each belongs to a distinct genetic cluster. The genetic differences are associated with antigenic differences in that an enzyme immune assay (EIA) specific for the prototype Sapporo/82 strain detected the Houston/86 strain, but not the Houston/90 and London/92 strains. In vitro transcription and translation of viral cDNA containing the predicted capsid gene of Houston/90 resulted in a protein of 63 K, which is immunoprecipitated by sera from children infected with the strain. Genetically and antigenically distinct strains in the Sapporo-like HuCVs have not been described previously and the occurrence of such diverse strains in the same community likely increases the importance of these strains as a cause of illness in children. ProCite Record Number: 5750Journal Short Form workform?)Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas B. L. Murphy1966'Fate of poliovirus in northern quahaugs601-607?Proceedings for the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine1212ProCite Record Number: 5760Journal Short Form workformeD?5NSSP and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services1990FSanitation of the harvesting, processing and distribution of shellfishJNSSP shellfish sanitation program manual of operations, Part II (revision)ProCite Record Number: 5770bManuscript workform (02) Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration (25) Washington, D.C.?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention19906Foodborne disease outbreaks, 5-year summary, 1983-198715-57%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report391 This report summarizes data from foodborne disease outbreaks reported to CDC from 1983 through 1987. With a few exceptions, an outbreak is defined as an incident in which two or more persons experience a similar illness and food is implicated. During this period, 2,397 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported, representing 91,678 cases. Among outbreaks in which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest number of outbreaks (66%) and cases (92%). Chemical agents caused 26% of outbreaks and 2% of cases. Parasites caused 4% of outbreaks and less than 1% of cases, and viruses caused 5% of outbreaks and 5% of cases. The discrepancies between the number of outbreaks and the number of cases attributed to each etiologic agent emphasizes the importance of evaluating both numbers before drawing conclusions. The etiologic agent was not determined in 62% of outbreaks, reflecting the need for improved investigative skills. The number of outbreaks reported by this surveillance system is only a small fraction of the true number that occur. The likelihood of an outbreak's being reported depends on many factors, such as ease of recognition and ease of laboratory confirmation. Sporadic foodborne illness is far more common and is not included in this report. ProCite Record Number: 5780Journal Short Form workform)?Metcalf, T. G.1982#Viruses in shellfish-growing waters21-27Environment International ?7zThe conversion of the bivalve shellfish to a virus carriage status is the most important consequence of the virus pollution of shellfish-growing waters. Virus carriage has public health implications of significance for consumers of raw or inadequately cooked shellfish, as well as general biological implications of significance for shellfish themselves. The nonculturable human enteric viruses are responsible for most if not all of the illness transmitted by virus-carrying shellfish. Use of feces-associated natural virus in numbers comparable to those found in grossly polluted waters has been instrumental in developing new perspectives of virus carriage and its biological significance. The feasibility of developing a virus standard for virus surveillance of shellfish and its use for assessment of health risks which arise as a consequence of shellfish virus carriage is discussed.ProCite Record Number: 5790Journal Article workform?'Sobsey, M. D. A. L. Davis V. A. Rullman1987OPersistence of hepatitis A virus and other viruses in depurated eastern oysters 1740-1745Proceedings of OceansLaboratory studies were done to determine the persistence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and poliovirus type 1 in experimentally contaminated Eastern oysters under depuration conditions. The effects of temperature (12, 17, and 23 ºC). salinity (8, 18 and 28 PPT), and food supply in the form of alga Isochrysis galbana, on virus depuration were studied. Under all test conditions, oysters reduced poliovirus by >98% in 2 to 3 days, but under most test conditions, HAV was generally reduced by no more than 90% in up to 5 days. However, HAV was reduced extensively (>95%) in oysters depurated at 23 ºC and 28 PPT salinity. The results of these studies indicate that HAV in contaminated oysters may not reduced efficiently using some currently accepted depuration conditions.ProCite Record Number: 5800Journal Short Form workform?'Jaykus, L. A. M. T. Hemard M. D. Sobsey1994 Human enteric pathogenic viruses92-153-Environmental indicators and shellfish safety"Pierson, M. D. C. R. Hackney (Ed.)NewportPierson Associates, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 5810Book Chapter workformi?lAlter, M. J. R. J. Gerety L. A. Smallwood R. E. Sampliner E. Tabor F. Deinhardt G. Frössner G. M. Matanoski1982WSporadic non-A, non-B hepatitis: frequency and epidemiology in an urban U.S. population886-893Journal of Infectious Diseases1456Patients with acute viral hepatitis were identified at five hospitals in Baltimore, Maryland between February 1979-August 1980. Of the 295 patients with serologically diagnosed hepatitis, 42% had non-A, non-B hepatitis; 48% had hepatitis B; and 10% had hepatitis A. Compared with matched control patients with no liver disease, patients with non-A, non-B hepatitis more often had received a blood transfusion (11% vs. O, P less than 0.001), used parenteral drugs (42% vs. 4%, P less than 0.001), were employed as health workers in direct patient care or hospital laboratory work (6% vs. 3%, P less than 0.05), had personal contact with others who had hepatitis (16% vs. 1%, P less than 0.001), or had ingested raw shellfish (34% vs. 20%, P less than 0.01). A history of previous clinical hepatitis and serologic markers indicating previous hepatitis B infection were found in patients with non-A, non-B hepatitis more often than in the control patients. Chronic non-A, non-B hepatitis was found in 34 (42.5%) of 80 patients with non-A, non-B hepatitis. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform? Brugh Jr., M.1977MButylated hydroxytoluene protects chickens exposed to Newcastle disease virus 1291-1292Science1974310Dietary butylated hydroxytoluene, an antioxidant widely used in food and feed processing, prevents mortality of chickens exposed to virulent Newcastle disease virus and prevents the serological response of chickens exposed to avirulent Newcastle disease virus. This chemoprophylactic effect is evident when chickens are fed diets containing concentrations of butylated hydroxytoluene normally used for antioxidant purposes (100 to 200 parts per million of total diet). ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform?De Sena, J. B. Mandel1976wStudies on the in vitro uncoating of poliovirus. I. Characterization of the modifying factor and the modifying reaction470-483Virology702ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Short Form workform?MacDonald, K. L. P. M. Griffin19861Foodborne disease outbreaks, annual summary, 19827SS-16SS%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report351ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Short Form workform"?(Ijzerman, M. M. D. R. Dahling G. S. Fout1997A method to remove environmental inhibitors prior to the detection of waterborne enteric viruses by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction145-153Journal of Virological Methods631-2h(Original) Fulvic acid, human enteric virus, humic acid, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactionrA method was developed to remove environmental inhibitors from sample concentrates prior to detection of human enteric viruses using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Environmental inhibitors, concentrated along with viruses during water sample processing, are removed by the method through a series of steps that includes dialysis, solvent extraction, ultrafiltration and glass purification. The method was tested by spiking sodium phosphate with poliovirus type 1 with or without humic or fulvic acids and then measuring virus recovery by plaque assay and RT-PCR. Results of the study indicated that (i) 90% of the spiked virus could be recovered from samples at the end of the ultrafiltration step, (ii) virus was detected in the final eluate of samples containing as much as 0.5 mg of humic acid or 5.0 mg of fulvic acid, and (iii) as little as 0.06 plaque forming units (PFU) was detectable per RT-PCR reaction. These results indicate that the described purification method along with RT-PCR is a feasible approach for detecting waterborne human enteric viruses in the presence of interfering substances. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform%? \Norman, A. M. Pfisterer-Hunt S. Schade J. Graff R. L. Chaves P. Crovari G. Icardi B. Flehmig1995=Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of hepatitis A in Italy467-471Journal of Medical Virology474;(Original) Antigen, capture/PCR, HAV, nucleic acid sequenceThe relationship of hepatitis A virus (HAV) isolates associated with an outbreak in Genoa, Italy, in 1993 was examined using direct sequencing of amplicons derived by antigen capture PCR (AC/PCR) from faecal samples of the infected persons. Forty samples recovered from 38 primary and two secondary cases were examined. The latter were household contacts of the primary cases. In addition, faecal material of 2 unrelated persons infected simultaneously with hepatitis A in Genoa were tested. The PCR products derived from the P1/P2 junction of the HAV genome were analysed. A 100% nucleotide identity was detected between the viral isolates originating from the primary as well as the secondary cases. The viral isolates recovered from the faecal samples of the two unrelated cases differed from the virus causing the outbreak as well as from each other. These results indicate that a single HAV strain caused the outbreak. The virus might have been transmitted by ingestion of contaminated food or water since all hepatitis A infected employees of the factory had eaten in the same canteen. Definitions of HAV genotypes are based on numerous genetic comparisons of different strains. The sequence comparison of the investigated isolates with published HAV sequences of the P1/P2 genome region revealed that the virus associated with the outbreak belongs to HAV subgenotype IA, whereas the strains recovered from the viral isolates of the unrelated cases belong to subgenotype IB. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform?".Quignon, F. M. Sardin L. Kiene L. Schwartzbrod1997KPoliovirus-1 inactivation and interaction with biofilm: A pilot-scale study978-982&Applied and Environmental Microbiology633Drinking-water, virucidal effectiveness, bacterial adhesion, free chlorine, viruses, survival, montmorillontte, potentlation, adsorption, solidsQA pilot-scale study was initiated to examine the behavior of viruses pulse injected into a distribution system. The influence of a free-chlorine residual and that of virus preadsorption to clay particles was evaluated by tracing the viruses both in the water flow and after elution from the biofilm. These experiments demonstrated, first, that virus preadsorption on 40 mg of Na-montmorillonite per liter increased the residence time of the viruses within the pilot plant by roughly three times and, second, that preadsorption to clay did not prevent viruses from being inactivated by chlorine, Moreover, with no clay added, a greater amount of viruses was recovered from the biofilm than from the water flow (by a factor of 2 or 10 in the absence or presence of chlorine, respectively), indicating a tendency for virus accumulation within biofilms.ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform?##Sobsey, M. D. T. Fuji P. A. Shields1988`Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and model viruses in water by free chlorine and monochloramine385-391Water Science and Technology2011-12z(Original) Hepatitis A virus, coxsackievirus, coliphages, disinfection, inactivation, free chlorine, monochloramine, waterThe kinetics and extent of inactivation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) as well as three other viruses, coxsackievirus B5 (CB5) and coliphages MS2 and øX174, by 0.5 mg/l free cholrine, pH6-10, and 10 mg/l monochloramine, pH8, at 5ºC in 0.01 M phosphate buffer were determined. HAV was relatively sensitive to 0.5 mg/l free chlorine but relatively resistant to 10 mg/l monochloramine. Compared to HAV, CB5 was quite resistant to inactivation by free chlorine but similar in resistance to inactivation by monochloramine. Inactivation of øX174 by free chlorine was rapid at pH 6-9 and intermediate between that of HAV and CB5 at pH 10. øX174 was inactivated most rapidly of all viruses tested by 10 mg/l monochloramine. Inactivation of MS2 by free chlorine was somewhat more rapid than HAV at low pH but less rapid than HAV at high pH. MS2 inactivation by 10 mg/l monochloramine was slowest of all viruses tested. These results indicate that HAV is inactivated relatively rapidly by free chlorine but relatively slowly by monochloramine . Coliphages MS2 is a reasonable model to predict inactivation of HAV by free chlorine and inactivation of HAV and CB5 by monochloramine. It is a poor model for predicting free chlorine inactivation of CB5 and perhaps some other human enteric viruses.ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workformt?$6Straub, T. M. I. L. Pepper M. Abbaszadegan C. P. Gerba1994LA method to detect enteroviruses in sewage sludge-amended soil using the PCR 1014-1017&Applied and Environmental Microbiology603`PCR detection of seeded poliovirus type 1 in sludge-amended soil was made possible by utilizing Sephadex G-50 and Chelex-100 resins to remove compounds present in sludge-amended soil that may inhibit PCR. With this method, enteroviruses indigenous to an anerobically digested sludge were detected by PCR in 10 different soils amended with this sludge. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Article workform?%+Abbaszadegan, M. P. Stewart M. LeChevallier19999A strategy for detection of viruses in groundwater by PCR444-449&Applied and Environmental Microbiology652We evaluated the use of the PCR for detection of enteric viruses in groundwater. To do this, we used an improved sample-processing technique and a large-volume amplification protocol. The objective of this study was to use advanced molecular techniques to develop a rapid and simple method which can be used by the water industry for detection of viral contamination in a variety of water samples. The strategy described here fulfills the water industry's need for a rapid, reliable, easily performed method for analyzing groundwater for virus contamination. Viruses were detected after concentration from at least 400 gallons (1,512 liters) of water by a filter adsorption and elution method, which resulted in a concentrate containing viruses. A total of 150 samples were analyzed by performing cell culture assays for enteroviruses and by performing reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) analyses for enteroviruses, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus. Thirteen samples (8.7%) produced cellular cytopathic effects when the Buffalo green monkey cell line was used. When primers specific for enteroviruses were used in RT-PCR, 40 of 133 samples (30.1%) tested positive for the presence of enterovirus RNA. When hepatitis A virus-specific primers were used, 12 of 139 samples (8.6%) were considered positive for the presence of hepatitis A viral RNA. The RT-PCR analysis performed with rotavirus-specific primers identified 18 of 130 samples (13.8%) that were positive for rotavirus RNA sequences. Our sample-processing technique and large-volume PCR protocol (reaction volume, 300 microliter) resulted in sufficient removal or dilution of inhibitors so that more than 95% of the samples could be assayed by PCR. Because of its sensitivity for detecting viral nucleic acid sequences, PCR analysis should produce more positive results than cell culture analysis. Since either cell culture analysis or PCR can reveal only a "snapshot" of the quality of the groundwater being sampled, PCR seems to be a desirable rapid initial screening tool. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Short Form workform?'.He, J. W. M. Ching P. Yarbough H. Wang M. Carl1995Purification of a baculovirus-expressed hepatitis E virus structural protein and utility in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 3308-3311 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3312oWe report on the purification of the full-length structural protein encoded by open reading frame 2 (ORF-2) of hepatitis E virus. The ORF-2 protein, expressed in Sf9 cells by using a recombinant baculovirus vector system, was successfully purified to homogeneity. Gel electrophoresis of the purified ORF-2 protein showed a single polypeptide of 75 kDa by Coomassie blue staining and by Western blot (immunoblot) analysis. We demonstrated that the partially purified ORF-2 protein could be used successfully in a sensitive and specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of antibodies to hepatitis E virus. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Short Form workform?(TGuest, C. K. C. Spitalny H. P. Madore K. Pray R. Dolin J. E. Herrmann N. R. Blacklow1987CFoodborne Snow Mountain agent gastroenteritis in a school cafeteria559-563 Pediatrics794In 1984, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred at a school with 1,860 students in Brooklyn, NY. In a single-stage cluster sample of 375 students, 129 (34%) had illnesses that met our case definition of vomiting or diarrhea. The mean incubation period was 26 hours, and the mean illness duration was 24 hours. All case students had eaten in the cafeteria on at least one day between Nov 13 and 16, compared with 174/214 (81%) noncase students (P = 10(-8), Fisher exact test). Foods implicated were french fries (relative risk 1.7, 95% confidence limits 1.4, 2.0) and hamburgers (relative risk 1.6, 95%, confidence limits 1.2, 2.1). Two cafeteria employees had served those foods while affected by diarrhea. By a recently developed blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, six of 11 (55%) case students showed fourfold antibody increases between acute- and convalescent-phase serum samples for Snow Mountain agent, a Norwalk-like virus, compared with one of ten (10%) noncase students (P = .04, Fisher exact test). We strongly suspect, but cannot document conclusively, that the Snow Mountain agent was spread to students on a vector of hot foods contaminated by ill food handlers. Implicated foods conferred low relative risks and could only have accounted for 74% of cases of illness. The strong association between cafeteria exposure and illness, therefore, suggests that additional modes of spread occurred. ProCite Record Number: 5820Journal Short Form workform?)FWilson, R. Anderson, A. D. Holman, R. C. Gary, G. W. Greenberg, H. B.1982]Waterborne gastroenteritis due to the Norwalk agent: clinical and epidemiologic investigation72-74!American Journal of Public Health721An outbreak of gastroenteritis occured at a Pennsylvania summer camp in July 1978. Symptoms included abdominal pain (81 per cent), nausea (72 per cent), and vomiting (53 per cent); upper respiratory infection symptoms occurred in 35 per cent of the campers. Illness was associated with consumption of five or more glasses of water or water-containing beverages. Stool cultures from affected persons were negative for bacterial pathogens; however, a fourfold or greater rise to the Norwalk agent was demonstrated in serum samples of three of three ill persons tested and in none of eight controls (p<0.2). Campers ill during the first session who were also present during the second session did not become ill during the second session (p< .001).ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workformS?*3Amundson, D. C. Lindholm S. M. Goyal R. A. Robinson1988;Microbial pollution of well water in southeastern Minnesota453-468+Journal of Environmental Science and HealthA235OGroundwater contamination is a growing problem in southeastern Minnesota. This region is characterized by karst topography which is responsible for the formation of sinkholes, subsurface cracks, and underground rivers. These features enhanced transportation of surface contaminants into groundwater. The present study was conducted to determine the presence of coliforms, fecal coliforms and coliphages in private rural wells situated in this region. Another purpose was to study the oocurrence of drug resistance in bacteria isolated from groundwater. Well water from 18 sites was tested monthly for a period of 16 months . Seventeen of 18 sites sampled showed detectable levels of indicator bacteria. A total of 161 samples were tested for the presence of coliphages. Of these, 13 samples from 7 sites were found positive. On two occasions, coliphages were isolated from samples in which coliforms were undetectable. Water from 10 sites yielded drug resistant indicator bacteria. Twenty-five of 38 (65.8%) total coliforms and 9 of 27 (33.3%) fecal coliforms tested were found to carry drug resistance.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workform?+,Chasey, D. R. J. Higgins M. Jeffrey J. Banks1989BAtypical rotavirus and villous epithelial cell syncytia in piglets217-222 Journal of Comparative Pathology1002(Summary) Histopathological examination of small and large intestine from piglets with enteritis has shown the presence of epithelial multinucleate syncytia. Syncytia were associated with a specific type of atypical rotavirus infection, determined by electron microscopy and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of viral RNA. The observations are consistent with similar previously described natural or experimental infections in other animals. ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workform^?,4Castillo, G. R. Thiers B. J. Dutka A. H, el-Shaarawi1988EColiphage association with coliform indicators: a case study in Chile535-550???3}This paper summarizes the results obtained from an International Developement Research Centre (IDRC), Ottwa, Canada, funded study to evaluate the potential of using coliphage as an indicator of water quality. Raw water sample data indicated that the A-1 test combined with the coliphage test would make an excellent screening program for health hazards in these water. The superiority of the Presence/Absence test for detecting microbobial health hazards in potable water was readily shown, while the H2S paper strip techinque was found to be equally efficient for testing potable waters as traditional coliform water quality indicators.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workform?-&Martin, A. L. J. Miller G. B. Clements1991<Viral cause of gastroenteritis-an investigation worth making4-5-Communicable Disease and Environmental Health252ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workformh?..Mizutani, H. H. Mizutani K. Nozaki K. Fujiwara1989>Electron microscopic studies of viruses labeled with magnetite593-599Microbiology and Immunology337tWe were able to develop a method with which to successfully and specifically detect virus particles under the electron microscope by using magnetite. This method was devised on the principle that magnetite-labeled antibody or magnetite coupled with protein A selectively bind virus or antibody-treated virus particles on the electron microscope grid by the action of an electromagnet. Another advantage characterizing the technique is the possibility of detection of a small number of virus particles. This is done through a process of concentration and purification of the reaction complexes trapped rigidly by magnetic force. ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform?/3Rusin, P. A. N. A. Sinclair C. P. Gerba M. Gershman1992YApplication of phage typing to the identification of sources of groundwater contamination138-188 Journal of Contaminant Hydrology11wPhage typing of Escherichia coli populations was used as a "fingerprinting" tool to identify the source(s) of fecal coliform contamination of a drinking water well, PW-12. Group discrimination analysis was used to evaluate the data and determine the relative distance of population centroids from the centroid of the PW-12 population. The phage typing patterns were compared to serological results and correlations noted. Phage typing patterns were shown to be stable following 32-days incubation of E. coli isolates in garden soil, tap water and neutralized tertiary effluent, with and without the presence of autochthonous flora.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform?0Suttle, C. A. F. Chen1992;Mechanisms and rates of decay of marine viruses in seawater 3721-3729&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5811Loss rates and loss processes for viruses in coastal seawater from the Gulf of Mexico were estimated with three different marine bacteriophages. Decay rates in the absence of sunlight ranged from 0.009 to 0.028 h-1, with different viruses decaying at different rates. In part, decay was attributed to adsorption by heat-labile particles, since viruses did not decay or decayed very slowly in seawater filtered through a 0.2-µm-pore-size filter (0.2-µm-filtered seawater) and in autoclaved or ultracentrifuged seawater but continued to decay in cyanide-treated seawater. Cyanide did cause decay rates to decrease, however, indicating that biological processes were also involved. The observations that decay rates were often greatly reduced in 0.8- or 1.0-µm-filtered seawater, whereas bacterial numbers were not, suggested that most bacteria were not responsible for the decay. Decay rates were also reduced in 3-µm-filtered or cycloheximide-treated seawater but not in 8-µm-filtered seawater, implying that flagellates consumed viruses. Viruses added to flagellate cultures decayed at 0.15 h-1, corresponding to 3.3 viruses ingested flagellate-1 h-1. Infectivity was very sensitive to solar radiation and, in full sunlight, decay rates were 0.4 to 0.8 h-1. Even when UV-B radiation was blocked, rates were as high as 0.17 h-1. Calculations suggest that in clear oceanic waters exposed to full sunlight, most of the virus decay, averaged over a depth of 200 m, would be attributable to solar radiation.. When decay rates were averaged over 24 h for a 10-m coastal water column, loss rates of infectivity attributable to sunlight were similar to those resulting from all other processes combined. Consequently, there should be a strong diel signal in the concerntration of infectious viruses. In addition, since sunlight destroys infectivity more quickly than virus particles, a large proportion of the viruses in seawater is probably not infective.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workformA?1 Serwer, P.1984bAgarose del electrophoresis of viruses and related particles: use in basic and diagnostic virology414-417%American Societ for Microbiology News509CIn studying the assembly of viruses, attempts are made to isolate and characterize viral precursors and to determine the kinetics of the progression of the precursors in viral assembly pathways. In pursuit of these goals, techniques have been developed for rapidly and gently detecting, isolating, aharacterizing, and quantitating viruses and viral precursors. any techniques developed for these purposes also have potential for similar use in environmental and diagnostic virology. I and my co-workers have been developing agarose gel electrophoresis for use in studying bacteriophage assembly. There is evidence that agarose gel electrophoresis will be useful for diagnostic virology.The techniques of agrose gel electrophoresis and their applications (realized and potential) in basic and diagnostic virology will be described here.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform ?2*Schwartz, P. M. C. Shipman Jr. J. C. Drach1976Antiviral activity of arabinosyladenine and arabinosylhypoxanthine in herpes simplex virus-infected KB cells: selective inhibition of viral deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in the presence of an adenosine deaminase inhibitor64-74%Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy101The antiviral activity of the fraudulent nucleoside arabinosyladenine (ara-A) against herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 was increased nearly 20-fold by the adenosine deaminase inhibitor, coformycin. The combination of ara-A plus coformycin was 90 times more potent in blocking HSV replication than was arabinosylhypoxanthine (ara-H). In suspension culture both drugs were more active than they were in monolayer culture. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis also was inhibited by the nucleosides. Depending upon the species of DNA examined, ara-A was 8 to 15 times more active in the presence of coformycin, and the combination was 35 to 70 times more potent than ara-H. Both drugs inhibited total DNA synthesis to the same extent in uninfected and HSV-infected KB cells. In contrast, viral DNA synthesis was three to six times more susceptible to inhibition than was cellular DNA synthesis . Inhibition of viral DNA synhesis was more pronounced in suspension culture than monolayer culture. However, the method of cell propagation did not alter the degree to which the drugs inhibited DNA synthesis in uninfected KB cells. An index has been derived to quantitate the extent of the selective inhibition of viral or celluar DNA synthesis. Fifty percent inhibitory concertrations of a drug were calculated for uninfected KB DNA syntesis and viral DNA synthesis and expressed as a ratio. The logarithm of this ratioo was termed the selective index and was positive if viral DNA synthesis was inhibited preferentially or negative if uninfected KB DNA synthesis was more strongly inhibited. Data from experiments performed in monolayeer culture gave positive selective index values of 0.3, 0.5 and 0.4 for ara-A plus coformycin, ara-A, and ara-H, respectively. Values of 0.7 and 0.6 were obtained from suspension culture data for ara-A plus coformycin and ara-H, respectively. Considered collectively, the data presented in this communication establish that coformycin increased the potency of ara-A but did not increase its selectivity. ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform}?3:Le Guyader, F. V. Apaire-Marchais J. Brillet S. Billaudel 1993Use of genomic probes to detect hepatitis A virus and enterovirus RNAs in wild shellfish and relationship of viral contamination to bacterial contamination 3963-3968&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5911Genomic probes were used to investigate hepatitis A virus (HAV) and enterovirus RNAs in two types of shellfish from natural beds (Atlantic coast, France). After elution concentration, nucleic acid extracted by proteinase K and purified by phenol-chloroform and ethanol precipitation was assayed by dot blot hybridization. The probes used were a specific HAV probe corresponding to the 3' end (3D polymerase coding region) and an enterovirus probe corresponding to the 5' noncoding region. The method was first tested under experimental conditions by using virus-spiked shellfish before being applied under field conditions. Our results show that shellfish were highly contaminated: enterovirus and HAV RNAs were found in 63 and 67%, respectively, of samples examined with the riboprobes. On the same site, viral (HAV and enterovirus) RNAs were found in a larger fraction of cockles than mussels. Statistical tests of dependence showed no relationship between viral contamination and bacterial contamination (evaluated by fecal coliform counts). ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workform?4=Marie, D. C. P. D. Brussaard R. Thyrhaug G. Bratbak D. Vaulot1999NEnumeration of marine viruses in culture and natural samples by flow cytometry45-52&Applied and Environmental Microbiology651Flow cytometry (FCM) was successfully used to enumerate viruses in seawater after staining with the nucleic acid-specific dye SYBR Green-I. The technique was first optimized by using the Phaeocystis lytic virus PpV-01. Then it was used to analyze natural samples from different oceanic locations. Virus samples were fixed with 0.5% glutaraldehyde and deep frozen for delayed analysis. The samples were then diluted in Tris-EDTA buffer and analyzed in the presence of SYBR Green-I. A duplicate sample was heated at 80 degreesC in the presence of detergent before analysis. Virus counts obtained by FCM were highly correlated to, although slightly higher than, those obtained by epifluorescence microscopy or by transmission electron microscopy (r = 0.937, n = 14, and r = 0.96, n = 8, respectively). Analysis of a depth profile from the Mediterranean Sea revealed that the abundance of viruses displayed the same vertical trend as that of planktonic cells. FCM permits us to distinguish between at least two and sometimes three virus populations in natural samples. Because of its speed and accuracy, FCM should prove very useful for studies of virus infection in cultures and should allow us to better understand the structure and dynamics of virus populations in natural waters.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workformo?6KPagliaro, A. F. M. O. Masana E. D. Sanjurjo N. A. Fondevila H. R. Rodriguez1995fFoot-and-mouth disease virus inactivation in miniburgers by a continuous dry-moist heat cooking system181-184Journal of Food Protection5920(Original) FMDV inactivation, miniburger cookingSeveral thermal processes were tested to inactivate foot-and-mouth disease virus in beef miniburgers using a dry oven to grill and a steam oven to finish the cooking. A satisfactory product free of foot-and-mouth disease virus was obtained by grilling the contaminated miniburgers in the dry oven for299 s at 208ºC, followed by steam cooking in the moist oven for 190 s with a minimum average exit temperature of 99.4ºC. It was found that a temperature indicator device is reliable tool to verify the thermal process.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workformd?8/Reid, J. A. E. O. Caul D. G. White S. R. Palmer1988oRole of infected food handler in hotel outbreak of Norwalk-like viral gastroenteritis: implications for control321-323Lancet28606TInvestigation of an outbreak of viral (Norwalk-like) gastroenteritis amongst staff (40 cases), resident guests (over 70 cases), and persons attending functions (54 cases) at one hotel over 8 days suggested that the main vehicle of infection was cold foods prepared by a food handler during and after a mild gastrointestinal illness. He was excreting Norwalk-like virus particles 48 hours after the illness. In addition, ill kitchen staff vomited in the kitchen area and may have contaminated surfaces and stored foods. It is recommended that food handlers should be regarded as potentially infectious until at least 48 hours after clinical recovery from viral gastroenteritis. Stored foods that may have been contaminated should be immediately discarded and areas of the work place which may have been affected should be identified and decontaminated. ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Article workform?:$Agnès, F. J. M. Crance F. Lévêque1994LSeparate detection of the two complementary RNA strands of hepatitis A virus323-330Journal of Virological Methods493Y(Original) Hepatitis A virus, minus-strand RNA, RT-PCR, replication cycle, RNA-polymeraseYThe minus strand of hepatitis A virus can be detected specifically by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction amplification in infected cell culture extracts. Several controls gave evidence that the amplified fragment actually used the minus strand as initial template. Non-thermostable reverse transcriptase was not efficient for this purpose because of self-priming of the positive-stranded viral RNA during the reverse transcription step. This problem was overcome by the use of the thermostable rTth DNA polymerase that also has reverse transcriptase activity in the presence of Mn2+. ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform|7n;Richards, G. P. Goldmintz, D. Green, D. L. Babinchak, J. A.1982PRapid methods for extraction and concentration of poliovirus from oyster tissues285-291J. Virol. Methods55-6Animals Enterovirus/isolation & purification *Food Contamination Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Meat Methods Ostreidae/*microbiology Poliovirus/*isolation & purification *Polyethylenes Polymers *Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Tissue ExtractsDecA procedure is discussed for the extraction of poliovirus from oyster meats by modification of several enterovirus extraction techniques. The modified method uses meat extract and Cat-Floc, a polycationic electrolyte, for virus extraction and concentration. Virus recovery from inoculated oyster homogenates is 93-120%. Adsorption of viruses to oyster proteins by acidification of homogenates does not affect virus recovery. Elution of viruses from oyster proteins appears more efficient at pH 9.5 than at pH 8.0. This technique is relatively simple, economical and requires only 2.5 h to complete the combined extraction and concentration procedure.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6298265Richards, G P Goldmintz, D Green, D L Babinchak, J A Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Netherlands Journal of virological methods J Virol Methods. 1982 Dec;5(5-6):285-91.0166-0934 (Print)6298265eng)?<7Grabow, W. O. K. P. Coubrough E. M. Nupen B. W. Bateman1984ZEvaluation of coliphages as indicators of the virological quality of sewage-polluted water7-14Water SA101&Coliphage counts obtained by plaque assays using Escherichia coli strains C603, K12 Hfr or B as hosts at 37 ºC or 25 ºC, were compared in tests on waters of different quality and origin. Strain C603 at 37 ºC yielded the highest counts, and was used in assays to compare numbers of coliphages with those of enteric viruses, standard plate counts, total and facel coliform bacteria, facel streptococci and acid-fast bacteria in wastewater, river and dam water, and treated drinking-water supplies. Coliphages generally outnumbered enteric viruses by a factor of 1,000 or more. Ratios of average counts of coliphages to those of other organisms tended to fluctuate, but showed that coliphage counts could give a useful estimate of numbers of other micro-organisms in sewage-polluted water. Evidence is presented that, even though counts of coliphages may not always directly correlate with those of enteric viruses, coliphages meet the basic requriements of an indicator for the virological safety of water, and that coliphage assays in combination with the standard plate count and counts of coliform and acid-fast bacteria, offer a practical and reliable indicator system for evaluating the virological safety of treated drinking-water supplies, even in the case of drinking-water directly reclaimed from wastewater.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workformi?=3Goodman, A. E. E. Hild K. C. Marshall M. Hermansson1993\Conjugative plasmid transfer between bacteria under simulated marine oligotrophic conditions 1035-1040&Applied and Environmental Microbiology594EMarine Vibrio S14 strains and an Escherichia coli strain were starved in artificial seawater (NSS) with no added carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus. The broad-host-range plasmid RP1 was transferred between the starving S14 strains and also from the E.coli donor to the S14 recipent under oligotrophic conditions, in which mixtures of donor and recipient cells were held on Neclepore filters either floated on NSS or held such that NSS flowed through the filter. Transconjugants were obtained from S14 donors and recipients starved for at least 15 days before being mixed together for conjugation, whereas transconjugants were recovered from the E. coli donor and S14 recipient for up to 3 days of prestarvation, but not after 5 days. Transconjugants were obtained when there were as few as about 105 and 104 cells of atarving S14 donors and recipients, respectively, per ml held on the filters. Starved donor and recipient mixtures incubated at 4 or 26 ºC, as well as those allowed to mate for 2, 5, 24 h, all yielded numbers of transconjugants which were not significantly (P> 0.005) different.ProCite Record Number: 5830Journal Short Form workform?>9Rodgers, F. G. P. Hufton E. Kurzawska C. Molloy S. Morgan1985[Morphological response of human rotavirus to ultra-violet radiation, heat and disinfectants123-130Journal of Medical Microbiology201The morphological damage induced in human rotavirus particles by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation at a wavelength of 254 nm increased progressively with length of treatment. Exposure of the virus in suspension to 9000 ergs/cm2/s was sufficient to remove the smooth capsid layer from 50% of particles after 1 min and from all the virions within 10 min. By this time, the number of stain-penetrated or empty particles increased markedly, along with the appearance of virus-derived debris in the form of disrupted and isolated capsomeres. After treatment for 120 min no intact virus particles were observed. The action of wet (100 degrees C) or dry (60 degrees C) heat resulted in changes similar to those effected by UV radiation, with a rapid loss of viral outer capsid shell from the virions followed by stain penetration and disintegration of particles. Sodium hypochlorite, cetrimide and 70% ethanol induced a rapid loss of the outer capsid layer, but, compared with UV radiation or heat, a slower increase in the number of stain-penetrated particles was noted. This was particularly evident with cetrimide. Chlorhexidine and phenol had effects on virus structure only after extended periods of exposure, whilst glutaraldehyde treatment had little influence on virus morphology. Glutaraldehyde 2% v/v would appear to be most suitable for the disinfection of rotavirus-containing electronmicroscope grids before their examination. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform??6von Bonsdorff, C. H. T. Hovi P. Mäkelä A. Mörttinen1978HRotavirus infections in adults in association with acute gastroenteritis21-28Journal of Medical Virology21^(Original) Complement-fixing (CF) serum, rotavirus, gastroenteritis, serioepidemiologic survey^During an epidemic of acute gastroenteritis in Helsinki, in March--May 1976, 18 out of 40 adult patients showed electron microscopic and/or serologic evidence for rotavirus infection. Rotavirus was most frequently seen in the fecal suspensions from 2 to 6 days after the onset of the symptoms but persisted in one patient for as long as 10 days. An increase in the complement-fixing (CF) serum antibody titers against the related Nebraska calf diarrhea virus (NCDV), or an initially high titer and subsequent significant decrease, was seen in all but one patient with rotavirus-positive feces, and in 6 additional patients. This suggests that using electron microscopy as the only diagnostic procedure a considerable number of rotavirus infections in adults remain undetected. Immune response against autologous or homologous rotavirus was also documented by immunoelectron microscopy. Complement-fixing antibody titers against NCDV decreased significantly from the convalescence values over a half-year observation period, but still remained clearly above the titers of a gastroenteritis-negative control population. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform?@'Izawa, H. R. A. Bankowski J. A. Howarth1962nPorcine enteroviruses I. Properties of three isolates from swine with diarrhea and one apparently normal swine 1131-1141'American Journal of Veterinary Research2397(Summary) Four viral agents (E1, E2, E3, and E4), cytopathogenic for pig kidney cultures, were isolated from the gastrointestinal tracts of swine. Each isolate was resistant to ethyl ether and trypsin and was stable upon storage for at least 300 days. The agents did not hemagglutinate nor hemadsorb red blood cells of several species of animals. The viruses were innocuous for guinea pigs, suckling mice, rabbits, and embryonating chicken eggs. All four agents passed through gradocol membranes having an average pore diameter of 72 mµ but not through membranes with an average pore diameter of 52 mµ.Three of the four agents (E1, E2, and E3) were isolated at different times from a herd of swine affected with diarrhea and enteritis, and the three agents were found to be serologically homogeneous. The fourth agent (E4) was obtained from a pig of apparently normal herd. This virus was found to be serologically unrelated to the other three agents and was characterized by slightly smaller plaques which grew at a slower rate. It was also more susceptible to heat when compared with the other three agents. Based upon cytopathogenic criteria, small size, and resistance to either, the agents were classed as porcine enteroviruses.ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform EU`|7HAusar, S. F. Foubert, T. R. Hudson, M. H. Vedvick, T. S. Middaugh, C. R.2006fConformational stability and disassembly of Norwalk virus-like particles. Effect of pH and temperature19478-88 J Biol Chem28128(Animals Capsid/*chemistry Circular Dichroism Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Insects Microscopy, Electron, Transmission Norwalk virus/*metabolism Protein Conformation Protein Structure, Quaternary Protein Structure, Secondary Scattering, Radiation Temperature Ultraviolet Rays Viral Proteins/chemistryJul 14Greater than 99% of the Norwalk virus (NV) capsid consists of 180 copies of a single 58-kDa protein. Recombinantly expressed monomers self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) with a well defined icosahedral structure. NV-VLPs are an appropriate vaccine antigen since the antigenic determinants of the parent virion are preserved. They also constitute very simple models to study the mechanisms of assembly and disassembly of viral capsids. This work examines the inherent stability of NV-VLPs over a range of pH and temperature values and provides detailed insight into structural perturbations that accompany disassembly. The NV-VLP structure was monitored using a variety of biophysical techniques including intrinsic and extrinsic fluorescence, high resolution second-derivative UV absorption spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD), dynamic light scattering, differential scanning calorimetry, and direct observation employing transmission electron microscopy. The data demonstrate that NV-VLPs are highly stable over a pH range of 3-7 and up to 55 degrees C. At pH 8, however, reversible capsid dissociation was correlated with increased solvent exposure of tyrosine residues and subtle changes in secondary structure. Above 60 degrees Cp?CdBrigati, D. J. D. Myerson J. J. Leary B. Spalholz S. Z. Travis C. K. Y. Fong G. D. Hsiung D. C. Ward1983|Detection of viral genomes in cultured cells and paraffin-embedded tissue sections using biotin-labeled hybridization probes32-50Virology1261A method of in situ cytohybridization is described for the detection of specific viral genomes in infected cell cultures or paraffin-embedded tissue sections without the use of radioisotopes. Biotin-labeled analogs of TTP are incorporated into viral DNA in vitro by nick translation and the resultant DNA probes hybridized to cytologic samples. Cells containing viral genetic material are then revealed by standard immunofluorescence, immunoperoxidase, or affinity cytochemical techniques that are based on the specific interaction between biotin and antibiotin IgG or avidin. Hybridization probes containing nucleotides that have an 11- or 16-atom spacer arm between the biotin molecule and the pyrimidine ring interact with these detector proteins more efficiently than probes containing biotin-nucleotides with a 4-atom spacer arm. The total procedure can be performed fairly rapidly (24 hr or less) and numerous samples can be processed simultaneously. Although the detection methods employed to date are not as sensitive as autoradiographic procedures with high specific activity probes, more sensitive protein detector complexes are currently being constructed. The speed, specificity, and resolving power of this technique should be of general utility in screening for the presence of infectious agents in cell or tissue samples. Here we report the visualization of parvovirus, polyomavirus, herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, and retrovirus genetic material in infected cell cultures and herpes simplex and adenovirus DNA in paraffin-embedded autopsy tissues. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform?D Mandel, B.1976|Neutralization of poliovirus: a hypothesis to explain the mechanism and the one-hit character of the neutralization reaction500-510Virology692ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform7?E.Vonstille, W. T. W. T. Stille III R. C. Sharer1993;Hepatitis A epidemics from utility sewage in Ocoee, Florida120-124 Archives of Environmental Health482AThe 1988-1989 hepatitis A epidemic in the Palms section of Ocoee, Florida, followed sewage overflows and involved 39 cases and a fetal death. Of the 18 index cases (i.e., the first hepatitis illness in a household), each had a history of contact with sewage-contaminated stormwater and no other known contact with the infection. Illnesses varied from mild to severe; 20 people reported that diarrhea, abdominal pain, varying degrees of ascites, and other symptoms continued for 2 y after the initial illness. Health injuries up to 20 y of lost life, measured by CEA-Clinical Epidemiological AnalysisSM, were found. Public records of rainfall and sewage flows provide evidence of massive stormwater entry into the utility system, which periodically appears to have flushed sewage from the utility lift station into residential areas. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform?F6Skilling, D. E. J. E. Barlough E. S. Berry A. W. Smith1985aA simple rapid method for preparation of virus isolates from cell culture for electron microscopy217-220!Journal of Tissue Culture Methods94O(Original) Virus isolates, cells, cultured, electron microscopy, centrifugationh(Summary) A simple procedure for the rapid preparation of virus isolates from cell culture for negative-contrast electron microscopy was devised. Using only conventional centrifugation steps (i.e. without ultracentrifugation), the procedure produced consistent, fine-quality preparations of a variety of virus types differing in size/shape and buoyant density.ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform?GLe Gall-Reculé, G. V. Jestin1995UProduction of digoxigenin-labelled DNA probe for detection of Muscovy duck parvovirus39-44Molecular and Cellular Probes91s(Original) Muscovy duck parvovirus, DNA probe, dioxigenin, dot-blot hybridization assay, chemiluminescent detectionA chemiluminescent dot-blot hybridization assay was developed for the detection of Muscovy duck parvovirus (DPV) by using a non-radioactive DPV DNA probe. A 1030bp HindIII-Bg/II fragment of DPV DNA was labelled with digoxigenin-labelled dUTP. The hybridized DPV DNA probes were detected by an immunoenzymatic reaction using anti-digoxigenin-antibody Fab fragments conjugated to alkaline phosphatase and visualized by chemiluminescent reaction. The assay proved to be sensitive since up to 3 fg of homologous DPV DNA and 10(0.4) EID50 mul-1 of DPV infected amino-allantoic fluid could be visualized. It appeared to be specific for the detection of different strains of DPV and Derszy's disease virus (DDV). Nevertheless, the dot-blot assay showed a lower sensitivity to detect DDV infected samples. No hybridization was noticed between DPV DNA probe and the two mammalian parvovirus strains tested (canine and porcine parvoviruses), emphasizing nucleotidic sequence heterologies. The use of the probe for DPV diagnosis purpose is discussed. To our knowledge, this work constitutes the first description of a dot-blot hybridization assay for the detection of an avian parvovirus. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform!?HMayer, C. L. C. J. Palmer1996|Evaluation of PCR, nested PCR, and fluorescent antibodies for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in wastewater 2081-2085&Applied and Environmental Microbiology626Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis are diseases caused by the protozoan parasites Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. Waterborne transmission of these organisms has become more prevalent in recent years, and regulatory agencies are urging that source and finished water be screened for these organisms. A major problem associated with testing for these organisms is the lack of reliable methodologies and baseline information on the prevalence of these parasites in various water sources. Our study addressed both of these issues. We evaluated the presence and reduction of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in sewage effluent by a combination of indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) staining and PCR. Our results indicated a 3-log reduction of Giardia cysts and a 2-log reduction of Cryptosporidium oocysts through the sewage treatment process as determined by IFA. We developed a nested PCR to detect Cryptosporidium oocysts and used a double PCR to detect Giardia cysts. A 100% correlation was noted between IFA and PCR detection of Giardia cysts while correlation for Cryptosporidium oocysts was slightly less. On the basis of these results, PCR may be a useful tool in the environmental analysis of water samples for Giardia and Cryptosporidium organisms. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform?I$Jothikumar, N A. Dwarkadas P. Khanna1991fEvaluation of Urea-Arginine Phosphate Buffer (U-APB) for reconcerntration of viruses in field samples231-236.International Journal of Environmental Studies39W(Original) Drinking water, viruses, elution, reconcerntration, precipitate, IR spectrum?Urea-Arginine Phosphate Buffer (U-APB), a composition identified by the authors for virus elution and reconcerntration through membrane filter, is readily available and appropriate for concerntration process during viral assay in drinking water samples. In the present study, contaiminated lake water samples have been analysed through a method incorporating U-APB. IR spectral analyses of precipitates indicate the presence of HPO4 band and that the absorption of viruses during reconcerntration step is attributable to formation of MgHPO4 in the reconcerntration processes.ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform6?J-Patterson, W P. Haswell P. T. Fryers J. Green1997^Outbreak of small round structured virus gastroenteritis arose after kitchen assistant vomited101-103Communicable Disease Report77o(Original) Disease outbreaks, disease transmission, food handling, intestinal diseases, Norwalk virus, vomitingA wedding reception at a North Yorkshire hotel was followed by an explosive outbreak of gastroenteritis. The attack rate among the 111 guests was 50% and vomiting was a predominant feature. The results of laboratory and epidemiological investigations were consistent with a common source outbreak of small round structured virus (SRSV) infection genotype II. The source of the outbreak was traced to a kitchen assistant who suddenly became ill on the eve of the reception and vomited into a sink used for preparing vegetables. The sink was cleaned with a chlorine based disinfectant and used the next morning to prepare a potato salad, subsequently identified as the vehicle of infection in a cohort study of guests (odds ratio 3.21; CI 1.78-5.78, p = 0.0001). No other food was associated with illness. The outbreak provides further supporting evidence of the importance of vomiting in the transmission of SRSV infection, highlights the virulence of this group of viruses, and indicates their relative resistance to environmental disinfection and decontamination. It also highlights the need for the adequate training of catering staff and the implementation and enforcement of food hygiene regulations. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workformz?K/Thompson, S. S. M. Flury M. V. Yates W. A. Jury1998KRole of the air-water-solid interface in bacteriophage sorption experiments304-309&Applied and Environmental Microbiology641pBatch sorption experiments were carried out with the bacteriophages MS2 and phi X174. Two types of reactor vessels, polypropylene and glass, were used. Consistently lower concentrations of MS2 were found in the liquid phase in the absence of soil (control blanks) than in the presence of soil after mixing. High levels of MS2 inactivation (approximately 99.9%) were observed in control tubes made of polypropylene (PP), with comparatively little loss of virus seen in PP tubes when soil was present. Minimal inactivation of MS2 was observed when the air-water interface was completely eliminated from PP control blanks during mixing. All batch experiments performed with reactor tubes made of glass demonstrated no substantial inactivation of MS2. In similar experiments, bacteriophage phi X174 did not undergo inactivation in either PP or glass control blanks, implying that this virus is not affected by the same factors which led to inactivation of MS2 in the PP control tubes. When possible, phage adsorption to soil was calculated by the Freundlich isotherm. Our data suggest that forces associated with the air-water-solid interface (where the solid is a hydrophobic surface) are responsible for inactivation of MS2 in the PP control tubes. The influence of air-water interfacial forces should be carefully considered when batch sorption experiments are conducted with certain viruses. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Article workform?LkApaire-Marchais, V. B. H. Robertson V. Aubineau-Ferre M. G. Le Roux F. Leveque L. Schwartzbrod S. Billaudel1995TDirect sequencing of hepatitis A virus strains isolated during an epidemic in France 3977-3980&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6111Direct sequencing of PCR products was used to study the VP1 region of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) genome (position 2199 to 2356) of nine strains isolated from human stools collected during a hepatitis A epidemic (western France, 1992), three strains from environmental samples (1990, 1991, and 1992), and two HAV cell culture isolates (the French strain CF53/Lyon and strain CLF). These viruses differed from CF53/Lyon (genotype I) by between 1 and 10.3%, and results indicated the existence of two groups of strains belonging to two different subgenotypes (IA and IB). With this sequencing technique it was possible to monitor the epidemiology of HAV and study its relations. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform?M2Goyal, S. M. W. N. Adams M. L. O'malley D. W. Lear1984VHuman pathogenic viruses at sewage sludge disposal sites in the Middle Atlantic region758-763&Applied and Environmental Microbiology484Human enteric viruses were detected in samples of water, crabs, and bottom sediments obtained from two sewage sludge disposal sites in the Atlantic Ocean. Viruses were isolated from sediments 17 months after the cessation of sludge dumping. These findings indicate that, under natural conditions, viruses can survive for a long period of time in the marine environment and that they may present potential public health problems to humans using these resources for food and recreation. The isolation of viruses in the absence of fecal indicator bacteria reinforces previous observations on the inadequacy of these bacteria for predicting the virological quality of water and shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workform?NCGross, T. P. J. G. Conde G. W. Gary D. Harting D. Goeller E. Israel1989YAn outbreak of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis in a high school in Maryland164-169Public Health Reports1042An outbreak of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis (AING) occurred in a high school in Maryland in 1984. Thirty-six percent of students surveyed met the case definition of gastroenteritis, as did 24 percent of school employees. Eating lunch in the cafeteria on January 30 was significantly associated with illness. After controlling for other food items consumed during the January 30 lunch, only the sandwiches were significantly associated with illness, but the source of the contamination was not identified. Four of 17 serum pairs from sick students and none of the 8 serum pairs from exposed controls (a nonsignificant difference) showed at least a 4-fold rise in antibody titre to Norwalk virus between acute- and convalescent-phase specimens. This outbreak of AING is believed to be the first to implicate epidemiologically sandwiches as vehicles of transmission. The outbreak highlights the need for investigators to look for a viral etiology in gastroenteritis outbreaks. ProCite Record Number: 5840Journal Short Form workformD?O Cliver, D. O.1983$Foodborne diseases: viral infections279-2947CRC Handbook of Foodborne Diseases of Biological OriginxThe transmission of viruses through foods has been known at least since 1914. Viruses capable of being foodborne are typically those transimitted by an "anal-oral" cycle, which may include direct anal-oral contract, other "contract" transmission, or indirect transmission such as that in which food and water serve as vehicles. These viruses enter the body by ingestion, are generally produced in the intestine (though they may not cause symptoms there), and are shed with feces. Fecal contamination of foods is known to occur both directly and by way of fecally contaminated water. Compilation from figures available for the U.S. for the years 1974 to 1978 indicates that outbreaks of proven foodborne viral disease comprised 2.5% of the foodborne outbreaks of known etiology and included 3.2% of the cases of illness in such outbreaks. The majority of outbreaks during the period were of undetermined etiology, and some of these were probably viral gastroenteritis. Many viruses that might be transmissible through foods are likely to cause disease involving organs remote from the digestive tract and thus not be recognized as foodborne by clinicians, and much foodborne disease that takes place is not reported through official channels. In all, it seems likely that a great deal more foodborne viral disease is occurring in the U. S. than would be indicated by the average reported totals of approximately 5 outbreaks and 190 cases per year, but it is important to note that the preeminent mode of transmission for theses viruses is almost certainly by contact, rather than via food. Comparable figures for other countries do not seem to be available.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform?P'Izawa, H. J. A. Howarth R. A. Bankowski1962bPorcine enteroviruses II. Pathogenesis of viral agents isolated from the intestinal tract of swine 1142-1149'American Journal of Veterinary Research2397(Summary) Three serologically related enteroviruses (E1, E2, and E3) were isolated from intestinal tracts of pigs of a herd with a history of enteritis. The agents produced an acute disease characterized by severe gastroenteritis followed by paralysis of the hindlegs in specific-pathogen-free (SPF), antibody-devoid pigs. Poliomyelitis-like lesions were found in the brain stem and spinal cord in 1 of 2 paralyzed pigs. Oral inoculation of the agents into a litter of suckling pigs did not produce signs of disease but produced serum antibodies in high titer. the fourth enterovirus (E4) isolated from the intestinal tract of a pig from a clinically normal herd was not pathogenic for SPF pigs. This virus is considered to be an "orphan" enterovirus of swine. All four viruses were re-isolated from intestinal tracts, particularly from the lower portions, of SPF pigs for several weeks following inoculation. A limited survey of swine serum and colostrum suggested that the viral agents were widely disseminated. The serum titers were higher in older swine than in younger pigs, but the specificity of the neutralization reactions to these isolates has not been established.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform?Q0Bamber, M. H. C. Thomas B. Bannister S. Sherlock1983uAcute type A, B, and non-A, non-B hepatitis in a hospital population in London: clinical and epidemiological features561-564Gut246(Summary) The aetiology of acute viral hepatitis in 172 patients admitted to an infectious diseases hospital in North London was: hepatitis A in 88 (51%), hepatitis B in 58 (34%), Epstein-Barr (EB) virus in four (2%) and non-A, non-B in 22 (13%). NANB hepatitis was a milder disease than that associated with the other viruses. It predominantly occurred in young men (77%). In half of the cases there was evidence of parenteral transmission. It was not transmitted by sexual contact. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform?RCliver, D. O. Z. Kounev1990{Current aspects of food safety under the conditions of modern agriculture and food industry in the state of Wisconsin - USA16-21 Biotechnology45-6Resources for ensuring the safety of food in the State of Wisconsin, USA, have been briefly surveyed. It is noted that agriculture ranks third behind manufacturing and tourism in the economy of Wisconsin, but the state ranks especially high in the production of milk and cheese. Control and inspection of meat, milk, and other foods from the farm through processing and eventual sale in Wisconsin, other states, or outside the USA are the responsibility of various government agencies. Food that is produced and sold entirely within Wisconsin is supervised by state agencies - especially the Department of Agriculture, Trade and Consumer Protection. Foods that will be sold outside the state are regulated by federal agencies - especially the Food and Drug Administration and the US Department of Agriculture. Strong penalties can be imposed on anyone found handling food in a way that causes a health risk.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform|?SMalewicz, B. H. M. Jenkin1979CDevelopment of dengue virus plaques under serum-free overlay medium609-614 Journal of Clinical Microbiology95An improved plaque assay for dengue virus was developed utilizing baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells initially grown in shaker culture. Different media preparations were tested for uniform and fast formation of BHK-21 cell sheets. Several overlay formulas were tested to develop a rapid plaque assay in 6- and 24-well plastic plates. The best results were obtained utilizing Eagle minimal essential medium (pH 7.2 to 7.4) supplemented with 1 mg of NaHCO3 per ml and 5% newborn calf serum for the formation of cell monolayers after 8 to 24 h of incubation at 37 degrees C. Serum-free Eagle minimal essential medium supplemented with 1% methylcellulose and buffered with 10 mM N-2-hydroxyethyl piperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid (pH 7.4 to 7.6) was used as an overlay medium. This system allowed for plaque formation after 3 days of incubation of dengue type 2 virus and after 4 days for dengue type 1 and 4 viruses. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform ?TRacaniello, V. R.19869Viral sequences required for neurovirulence of poliovirus266-270 Bioessays56ReviewD(Summary) Poliviruses of reduced neurovirulence contain point mutations in the viral RNA that are responsible for the attenuated phenotype. Two such point mutations have been identified in the genomes of the Sabin live oral vaccine strains, one in the 5'-noncoding region of the viral RNA, and one in capsid polypeptide VP3.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform?U%Smith, K. O. W. L. Kennell D. L. Lamm1981nVisualization of minute centers of viral infection in unfixed cell cultures by an enzyme-linked antibody assay297-305 Journal of Immunological Methods403Enzyme-linked antibody was used to treat unfixed herpesvirus-infected human fetal lung cell cultures in a mode which permitted the visualizing of local sites of infection. Foci containing as few as 20 herpesvirus-infected cells produced sufficient viral mass to be easily detectable by this method. 'Clouds' or 'plumes' of colored reaction product diffused into the substrate overlay, accumulated above and around each focus of infection and allowed quantitation of the number of foci in a culture. The number of minute centers of viral infection determined by the enzyme-linked antibody method corresponded almost exactly with values obtained by fluorescence microscopy. Quantitation of herpes simplex infectivity by focus assay was possible within only 17 h after culture inoculation, well before cytopathic effects were visible macroscopically. The technique was also applied to demonstrate measles and mumpsvirus plaques (infectious centers) in Vero cell cultures. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workformA?W*Minuk, G. Y. L. X. Ding C. Hannon L. Sekla1994WThe risks of transmission of acute hepatitis A and B virus infection in an urban centre118-121Journal of Hepatology211P(Original) Epidemilology. hepatitis, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, immunoprophylaxisIn a large urban centre of a developed nation, 63 household contacts of 20 index cases with acute hepatitis A virus infection and 95 household contacts of 29 index cases with acute hepatitis B virus infection were prospectively followed for 2 years to document the risk of acquiring acute hepatitis from the index case. Twenty-one of 63 (33%) hepatitis A virus household contacts had serologic evidence of previous hepatitis A virus infection on the initial serum sample. Of the remaining 42 susceptible individuals, 22 (52%) were or became IgM anti-HAV positive within 6 months of the diagnosis in the index case. With respect to hepatitis B virus infection, 18/95 (17%) household contacts had serologic evidence of previous hepatitis B virus infection on the initial serum sample. Of the remaining 77 susceptible individuals, four (5%) had or developed serologic evidence of acute hepatitis B virus infection (IgM anti-hepatitis B core antigen positive) during the 2 years of follow up. In three of these four individuals, acquisition of hepatitis B virus was apparent within 6 months of the diagnosis in the index case. The results of this study indicate that in this urban centre, the risk of acquiring acute hepatitis A virus infection from index cases within the household is approximately 10 times greater than that for acute hepatitis B virus infection. These results support the need for continued passive and/or active immunization against hepatitis A and B virus infection in susceptible household contacts.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform?X$Jothikumar, N A. Dwarkadas P. Khanna1990xA simple elution and reconcentration techinique for viruses concentrated on membrane filters from drinking water samples367-372Water Research243(Original) Water, polivirus 1, bacteriophage, elution, reconcerntration, urea, arginine, phosphate, magnesium, precipitation, plaque assayAn optimum concerntration of urea (1.5 M)-arginine phosphate(0.2:0.008 M) buffer (U-APB) has been designed in this research as an eluent at ph 9.0 for effective desorption and elution of viruses from negatively charged membrane filters. The primary eluate is further reconcerntrated by the precipitation of MgHPO4(s) on additional of MgCl2. The flocs are centrifuged, the pellet is dissolved in McIlvaines buffer (pH 5) and neutralized with sodium bicarbonate (8.8%) prior to assay on cell culture. The efficacy of the method has been tested at different inoculum levels and also for different volumes of water samples seeded with viruses. U-APB gives 92-100 and 88-93% recovery for Poliovirus 1 and bacteriophage, respectively, as against a 30-40% recovery of Poliovirus 1 and bacteriophage, respectively, and a meagre 30-40% recovery of Poliovirus 1 in the organic flocculation of beef extract method presently in use. Further, the eluent (U-APB) is easy to constitute and it performs elution and reconcerntration of viruses without any pH adjustment.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workformL?YNPawlotsky, J. M. J. Remire F. Darthuy L. Intrator L. Udin D. Dhumeaux J. Duval1995iIs the detection of anti-hepatitis C virus core IgM influenced by the presence of serum rheumatoid factor68-70Journal of Medical Virology451F(Original) Serum antibodies, chronic viral infection, cryoglobulinemiaRheumatoid factor (RF) induces false-positive results in the detection of serum antibodies, especially of the IgM type. About 70% of the patients with chronic hepatitis C have abnormal levels of serum RF. The aim of this study was to determine whether the presence of serum RF could influence the detection of anti-HCV core IgM, using an assay designed not to pick up RFs by the addition of goat antibodies directed against human IgG in the sample diluent. Serum anti-HCV core IgM antibodies and RF were sought in 60 patients with chronic hepatitis C. Serum anti-HCV IgG antibodies and anti-HCV core IgM antibodies were also sought in 101 patients with high levels of RF. Anti-HCV core IgM antibodies were found in 45% and serum RF in 72% of the patients with chronic hepatitis C. Neither the prevalence nor the levels of RF differed significantly between IgM positive and negative patients. Eight percent of the 101 patients with raised RF had anti-HCV antibodies and two of them had anti-HCV core IgM antibodies. No patient without anti-HCV antibodies had anti-HCV core IgM antibodies. These results show that: a) the detection of anti-HCV core IgM in patients with chronic hepatitis C is independent of the presence of serum RF; b) high titers of serum RF are not responsible for false-positive results of anti-HCV IgM tests. The study suggests that the test used could be a confident tool for studies on the significance of anti-HCV core IgM antibodies in chronic hepatitis C. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform?ZLRomalde, J. L. M. K. Estes G. Szücs R. L. Atmar C. M. Woodley T. G. Metcalf1994MIn situ detection of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures and shellfish tissues 1921-1926&Applied and Environmental Microbiology606An in situ transcription method was developed to detect hepatitis A virus RNA in both cell cultures and shellfish tissues. Radiolabeled cDNA copies were synthesized in situ by reverse transcriptase-directed transcription after annealing with a specific primer to the viral RNA. Both tritium (3H) and 35S were useful in the in situ transcription reaction, but the use of 3H resulted in a lower background and finer detail in the localization of viral particles. Application of the method to different organs of oysters which had bioaccumulated hepatitis A virus allowed the first in situ localization of the virus, specifically in stomach and hepatopancreatic tissues. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform*?[(Toranzo, A. E. J. L. Barja F. M. Hetrick1982:Antiviral activity of antibiotic-producing marine bacteria231-238 Canadian Journal of Microbiology282>The stability of poliovirus 1 in estuarine water and sediment was examined. The present data indicated that a 2 log reduction in virus titer at 15 degrees c occurred within 6-7 days in water samples taken from estuarine waters on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The antiviral effect decreased significantly when the seawater was subjected to autoclaving but not when it was filtered. That the antiviral activity activity of the seawater was related to the growth activities of microorganisms was corroborated by the isolation of antibiotic-producing marine bacteria that had marked activity against poliovirus (net inactivation greater than or equal to 2 logs within 6-8 days). These organisms retained this activity following repeated subcultivation on laboratory media. Since comparable inactivation rates were observed in cell-free filtrates from these marine strains, extracellular products appear to be involved in the virus-inactivation process. Other enteric viruses, Coxsackie B-5 and ECHO-6, were also inactivated by these marine bacteria. The addition of sediment to natural seawater increased the length of poliovirus survival more than three times over that in seawater alone. However, this was not found under sterile conditions, suggesting that the sediment can protect the viruses from inactivation by the marine microflora. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Article workform?\JArnal, C. V. Ferre-Aubineau B. Mignotte B. M. Imbert-Marcille S. Billaudel1999{Quantification of hepatitis A virus in shellfish by competitive reverse transcription-PCR with coextraction of standard RNA322-326&Applied and Environmental Microbiology651mTo quantify hepatitis A virus (HAV) in experimentally contaminated mussels, we developed an internal standard RNA with a 7-nucleotide deletion for competitive reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. Deposited directly into the sample, this standard was used both as extraction control and as quantification tool. After coextraction and competitive RT-PCR, standard and wild-type products were detected by differential hybridization with specific probes and a DNA enzyme immunoassay. The quantifiable range with this reproducible method was 10(4) to 10(7) copies of HAV/gram or 400 to 10(6) 50% tissue culture infective doses/ml. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform?]Gray, S. F. M. R. Evans1993_Dose-response in an outbreak of non-bacterial food poisoning traced to a mixed seafood cocktail583-590Epidemiology and Infection1103(Summary) An outbreak of non-bacterial food poisoning presumed due to small round, structured viruses (SRSV) occurred at a national conference. A detailed postal survey of all conference attenders was carried out to ascertain the cause of the outbreak and 355 questionnaires were returned. Univariate analysis showed that mussels in the seafood cocktail were the likely vehicle of infection. A dose-response relationship between the amount of seafood cocktail consumed and the risk of illness was demonstrated. Dose-response has not previously been documented in a food-borne outbreak due to small round structured virus. Detailed quantitative food histories can be useful in eliciting dose-response relationships and may be crucial in establishing the vehicle of infection when investigating food poisoning following consumption of a set-menu meal. Their use should be considered in other outbreak situations. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform+?^Hall, R. M. M. D. Sobsey1993`Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and MS2 by ozone and ozone-hydrogen peroxide in buffered water371-378Water Science and Technology273-4I(Original) Disinfection, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, hepatitis A virus, MS2The comparative inactivation of highly purified hepatitis A virus (HAV) and MS2 by 1 mg H2O2/L, 2.0 and 0.4 mg O3/L, and 2.0 mg O3/L plus 0.6, 1.0, or 1.6 mg H2O2/L, at 3-10°C, in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (ph 6-10) was determined. Both HAV and MS2 were completely inactivated (3.9-6 log10) within 5 seconds in ozone solutions. Hydrogen peroxide did not inactivate MS2, but did inactivate 95% of the HAV. Both HAV and MS2 were completely (3.3-5.5 log) inactivated within 5 seconds in the oxidant mixtures at ph 6-8, but MS2 survival exceeded that of HAV at ph 10. MS2 was found to be a good model for predicting HAV inactivation by ozone and mixtures of ozone and hydrogen peroxide when both viruses are purified in the same manner.ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workformp?_yGrumach, A. S. R. C. Carmona D. Lazarotti M. A. Ribeiro R. B. Rozentraub M. L. Racz A. Weinberg M. M. S. Carneiro-Sampaio1993\Immunological factors in milk from Brazilian mothers delivering small-for-date term neonates284-290ACTA Paediatrica823w(Original) Human milk analysis, immunology of human milk, infant nutrition, low-birth-weight newborns, viral antibodiesBreast milk samples from three groups of Brazilian women were evaluated: G1, mothers delivering term babies of low birth weight (n = 16); G2, mothers delivering preterm babies of appropriate birth weight (n = 20); G3, mothers delivering term babies of appropriate birth weight (n = 30). Milk samples were obtained at 48 h and on the 7th, 15th, 30th and 60th days after delivery and they were analyzed for lysozyme and total IgA levels and for the presence of specific antibodies against Poliovirus types I, II, III, Rotavirus, Herpes simplex virus, Varicella zoster and Cytomegalovirus. The groups were not statistically different in relation to mother's age, parity, type of delivery or socio-economic levels. IgA levels were higher in both low-birth-weight groups (G1 & G2) compared to the control group (G3) throughout the study period. Lysozyme levels decreased up to the 15th day, increasing thereafter up to the 60th day in all groups. Specific antibodies were detected throughout the study period, with no differences among groups. We conclude that breast milk composition of mothers delivering low-birth-weight babies (G1 & G2) was similar despite the different gestational ages. ProCite Record Number: 5850Journal Short Form workform?`Colonno, R. J.1987)Cell culture receptors for picornaviruses270-274 Bioessays56(Summary) Picornaviruses can be divided into at least six receptor families based on results of competition binding and receptor antibody studies. It has been proposed that a canyon present within the virion capsid harbors the viral attachment site for this group of viruses. Cell surface proteins involved in viral attachment have been identified for both rhinoviruses and coxsackie B viruses. Several monoclonal antibodies have been isolated which specially block the binding of some picornaviruses.ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Article workform~?a(Sun, C. F. C. C. Pao S. Y. Wu Y. F. Liaw1988_Screening for hepatitis B virus in healthy blood donors by molecular DNA hybridization analysis 1848-1852 Journal of Clinical Microbiology269hA DNA molecular hybridization technique employing a purified adw subtype hepatitis B virus (HBV) cloned DNA of 3.2 kilobase pairs as a probe was used to screen for the presence of HBV DNA in blood samples collected from 486 apparently healthy blood donors. Eighteen of 104 (17.3%) hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carriers and 7 of 382 (1.8%) HBsAg-negative individuals had circulating HBV DNA in their sera. Among the seven individuals who were positive for HBV DNA but negative for HBsAg, three had antibodies against both HBsAg (anti-HBsAg) and hepatitis B core antigen, one had only anti-HBsAg, one had both anti-hepatitis B core antigen and anti-hepatitis B e antigen and two were negative for all the above HBV markers. The results suggest that the absence of HBsAg in otherwise apparently healthy individuals may not be enough to ensure lack of circulating HBV. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?b7Huck, R. A. R. A. Bankowski J. A. Howarth K. Yamanouchi1964Porcine polioencephalomyelitis612-6146Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association1446ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?c+Berg, G. D. Berman S. L. Chang N. A. Clarke1966aA sensitive quantitative method for detecting small quantities of virus in large volumes of water196-203 American Journal of Epidemiology832ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?d%Crouse, G. F. A. Frischauf H. Lehrach1983YAn integrated and simplified approach to cloning into plasmids and single-stranded phages78-79Methods in Enzymology101ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?eColonno, R. J.1986)Cell surface receptors for picornaviruses270-274 Bioessays56?Picornaviruses, cell surface receptor, monoclonal antibodies/. (Summary) Picornaviruses can be divided into at least six receptor families based on results of competition binding and receptor antibody studies. It has been proposed that a canyon present within the virion capsid harbors the viral attachment site for this group of viruses. Cell surface proteins involved in viral attachment have been identified for both rhinoviruses and coxsackie B viruses. Several monoclonal antibodies have been isolated which specifically block the binding of some picornaviruses.ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workforms?fMalewicz, B. H. M. Jenkin1979TCultivation of dengue virus type 2 in baby hamster kidney cells in serum-free medium918-9201American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene285hPropagation of dengue virus type 2 (New Guinea C strain) was performed using a shaker culture of baby hamster kidney cells (BHK-21) cultivated in serum-free modified Waymouth medium. Maximum virus titer varied from 10(8.3) to 10(8.8) plaque forming units/ml after incubation of BHK-21 cells in suspension culture at 37 dgrees C for 40-48 hours post-infection. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?g-Murphy, P. T. Nowak S. M. Lemon J. Hilfenhaus1993GInactivation of hepatitis A virus by heat treatment in aqueous solution61-64Journal of Medical Virology411E(Original) Factor VIII concerntrate, pasteurization, HAV, poliovirus\Hepatitis A virus infections have been reported recently among hemophilic patients in Italy and Germany, leading to speculation that infectious hepatitis A virus (HAV) might have been present in some factor VIII concentrates. In both cases, the implicated factor concentrates had been treated by a solvent/detergent method, which inactivates enveloped viruses but which would not be expected to inactivate HAV, a nonenveloped picornavirus. To determine whether HAV would be inactivated during pasteurization of factor VIII concentrate, an alternative method employed for virus inactivation, we determined the extent to which the infectivity of cell culture-adapted HAV, suspended either in cell culture medium or in a proprietary stabilizing buffer, was reduced by heat treatment at 60 degrees C for 10 hr. The titer of infectious HAV declined rapidly at 60 degrees C, but the stabilizer considerably delayed HAV inactivation. In cell culture medium, HAV was inactivated by > 3.6 log10 within 30 min, but 3.6 log10 inactivation of HAV was reached only after 6 hr in the presence of the stabilizer. Residual infectious HAV was present after even 10 hr of heat treatment in the stabilizer, indicating that < 5.2 log10 infectious HAV particles are inactivated under these conditions. In the presence of the stabilizer, HAV was significantly more stable than poliovirus type 1, which has been used to validate virus inactivation by pasteurization. We conclude that pasteurized factor VIII concentrate should pose little if any risk for transmission of HAV if pooled plasma used for its manufacture contained low levels of the virus.ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Article workform?iRomalde, J. L.1996WNew molecular methods for the detection of hepatitis A and Norwalk viruses in shellfish547-556Microbiologìa SEM124e(Original) Hepatitis A virus; Norwalk virus, shellfish quality, in situ transcription, genetic probesT(Summary) Outbreaks of viral enteric diseases after consumption of shellfish are a major health risk. Methodological problems (such as toxicity for cell cultures and low viral concentrations) and the unculturability of some strains (i.e. hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus) have made it difficult to study those viruses in the environmental samples. Currently, the analysis of the hygienic quality of marketable shellfish is determined by the use of fecal indicator bacteria, but their reliability in determining viral pollution of shellfish is very low. Recent biotechnology developments are providing available rapid, sensitive, and specific tools for detecting food-borne viruses in shellfish and in shellfish-growing waters. In this paper, a review of these new molecular methods is carried out, discussing their advantages and possible applications.ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Article workform{?jOTraore, O. C. Arnal B. Mignotte A. Maul H. Laveran S. Billaudel L. Schwartzbrod1998Reverse transcriptase PCR detection of astrovirus, hepatitis A virus, and poliovirus in experimentally contaminated mussels: comparison of several extraction and concentration methods 3118-3122&Applied and Environmental Microbiology648Four methods of extraction and three methods of concentration of three enteric viruses from mussels were comparatively evaluated by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Shellfish were experimentally contaminated by immersion in seawater seeded with astrovirus, hepatitis A virus, or poliovirus. Sixty-gram samples of mussel tissues were processed by using borate buffer, glycine solution, saline beef, and saline beef-Freon extraction methods. The viruses were concentrated by precipitation with polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000) or PEG 8000 or by organic flocculation. RT-PCR was performed with RNA extracts from crude shellfish extracts and concentrates with and without Sephadex LH20 filtration. The glycine solution and borate buffer extraction methods resulted in significantly more RT-PCR-positive samples than the saline beef extraction method. We assessed the efficiency of 20 combinations of extraction and concentration methods. The borate buffer-organic flocculation, borate buffer-PEG 6000, and glycine solution-PEG 6000 combinations gave RT-PCR-positive results for all 27 samples analyzed for the three viruses. Detoxification of the samples by Sephadex LH20 filtration significantly decreased the efficiency of RT-PCR virus detection. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Article workform?k6Barardi, C. R. M. K. R. Emslie G. Vesey K. L. Williams1998]Development of a rapid and sensitive quantitative assay for rotavirus based on flow cytometry31-38Journal of Virological Methods741(Original) Rotavirus, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, cell culture, trypsin , polymerase chain-reaction, viral-RNA, sewage, water, PCR, antibodies, viruses, determinants, immunoassay, proteinsA very sensitive and accurate Bow cytometry (FC) based method have developed to quantitate rotavirus infection in MA104 cells. Confluent cell monolayers were infected with serial dilutions of rotavirus SA11. After infection. the cells were recovered with the aid of trypsin and then reacted with monoclonal antibody M60 (specific for the rotavirus outer capsid protein, VP7), followed by a second antibody (anti-mouse IgG-FITC). A FACScan FC was used to estimate the number of infected cells, as well as the level of infection. Viral infection was optimised by varying the concentration of trypsin used in the maintenance medium. The FC method enables many cells to be screened quickly for infectivity, and can detect low levels of virus. This method can be adapted to monitor the presence of other viruses in clinical and environmental samples without the need for prolonged periods of adaptation to growth in tissue culture. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workformo?lsGreen, S. M. P. R. Lambden Y. Deng J. A. Lowes S. Lineham J. Bushell J. Rogers E. O. Caul C. R. Ashley I. N. Clarke1995Polymerase chain reaction detection of small round-structured viruses from two related hospital outbreaks of gastroenteritis using inosine-containing primers197-202Journal of Medical Virology452M(Original) Calicivurs, epidemiology, nucleotide sequence, electron microscopyTwo outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the UK which occurred nine days apart at Lymington and Southampton hospitals were investigated. The clinical and epidemiological features of both outbreaks were characteristic of small round-structured virus (SRSV) infection with rapid onset of diarrhoea and/or nausea and vomiting and propagation of the outbreaks by secondary spread. SRSV particles were observed by immune electron microscopy (EM) in 60% of faecal samples from both outbreaks and no other pathogens were detected. The index case for the second outbreak was a patient who was admitted with diarrhoea and vomiting after being discharged from Lymington hospital during the first outbreak. The possibility that the two outbreaks were caused by the same strain of SRSV was investigated by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). New inosine-containing PCR primers were designed to amplify the RNA polymerase region of SRSV cDNA from genetic groups I and II. The PCR using the group II primers achieved a higher detection rate for SRSVs in faecal samples (68% of samples positive from both outbreaks) than immune EM. SRSVs were not detected using the group I primers or using conventional degenerate PCR primers. The nucleotide sequences of PCR amplicons from both outbreaks were identical providing molecular epidemiological evidence for the involvement of a single SRSV strain. Comparison of the RNA polymerase region of this virus with the equivalent regions of genetic group I (69.4-75.0% amino acid identify) and genetic group II (88.9-100% amino acid and 77.1-88.1% nucleotide identity) SRSVs revealed that the causative SRSV was a distinct member of genetic group II. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?m"Havelaar, A. H. W. M. Pot-Hogeboom1988SF-Specific RNA-bacteriophages as model viruses in water hygiene: ecological aspects399-407Water Science and Technology2011-12H(Original) RNA-bacteriophages, occurrence, multiplication, feces, sewage;Model organisms can be used to detect the possible presence of pathogens (index-function) or to assess the performance of a treatment process (indicator-function). To evaluate the index-function of FRNA-phages their ecology was studied. These phages were shown to be absent from feces of humans, dogs, cows, horses and to occur in relatively low numbers only in feces of pigs and calves. High counts were obtained from feces of broiler chickens (103-107 pfu/g). In various types of wastewater, counts were usually between 103 and 104 pfu/ml. These high counts could not be explained by direct fecal input. Mutiplication of FRNA-phages in the environment seemed unlikely because of the necessity of bacterial host-strains to bear F-pili. These are only produced at temperatures above 30ºC, It was shown however, that mutiplication of FRNA-phages can also occur if a host-cell pregrown at 37ºC (e.g. in the warm-blooded intestine) is transferred to environmental temperatures. Hence, the presence of FRNA-phages in environmental samples is indirectly associated with fecal pollution.ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform?n(Jothikumar, N. D. O. Cliver T. W. Mariam1998pImmunomagnetic capture PCR for rapid concentration and detection of hepatitis A virus from environmental samples504-508&Applied and Environmental Microbiology642We studied the concentration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) from environmental samples by membrane filter-based urea-arginine phosphate buffer and its detection by using immunomagnetic capture (IC) reverse transcription (RT)-PCR (IC PCR). Magnetic beads coated with anti-HAV rabbit antibodies were used for enrichment and concentration of HAV from environmental samples. IC PCR is sensitive enough to detect as few as 0.04 PFU of cell culture-adapted HAV in inoculated water and sewage samples. IC PCR is specific and does not yield positive reactions with poliovirus 1, HAV RNA, or selected bacteriophages. IC concentrates viruses suspended in small volumes to microliter volumes that can be used directly in RT-PCR. IC concentration of viruses from sewage samples without concentration of inhibitory substances is important for successful RT-PCR detection. In a field trial, 2 of 18 raw sewage samples tested by IC PCR were positive for HAV. ProCite Record Number: 5860Journal Short Form workform~?o6Landry, E. F. J. M. Vaughn M. Z. Thomas C. A. Beckwith1979^Adsorption of enteroviruses to soil cores and their subsequent elution by artificial rainwater680-687&Applied and Environmental Microbiology384WThe absorption and elution of a variety of human enteroviruses in a highly permeable, sandy soil was studied by using cores (43 by 125 mm) collected from an operating recharge basin on Long Island. Viruses studied included field and reference strains of polioviruses types 1 and 3 and reference strains of coxsackie virus B3 and echovirus types 1 and 6. Viruses suspended in treated sewage effluent were allowed to percolate through soil cores, and the filtrate was assayed for unadsorbed viruses. To determine the likelihood of desorption and mobilization, soil-bound viruses were subjected to a rinse with either treated sewage effluent or simulated rainwater which reflected the anion, cation, and pH characteristics of a typical northeastern United States rainfall. The results demonstrated that all polioviruses tested, including both reference and field strains, adsorbed extremely well to cores. Adsorption was somewhat reduced when clean, unconditioned soils were used. Soil-bound poliovirus strain LSc was not significantly mobilized by flooding columns with either a sewage effluent or rainwater rinse. One virus was mobilized by both types of rinses. The amount of viruses mobilized by rainwater rinses ranged from 24% to 66%. Variable adsorption-elution results were observed with other enteroviruses. Two guanidine-resistant mutants of poliovirus LSc demonstrated a soil adsorption-elution profile different from that of the parent strain. The data support the conclusion that soil adsorption-elution behavior is strain dependent and that poliovirus, particularly strain LSc, represents an inappropriate model.ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform?p*Boardman, G. D. T. R. McBrayer P. Kohlhepp1989DDetection and occurrence of waterborne bacterial and viral pathogens 1097-1109J. Water Poll. Control Fed.616ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform?q Craun, G. F.1985LA summary of waterborne illness transmitted through contaminated groundwater122-127Journal of Environmental Health483The use of contaminated, untreated or inadequately treated groundwater (a) was responsible for 51% of all waterborne outbreaks and 40% of all waterborne illness reported in the United States during 1971-82. Contaminated, untreated or inadequately disinfected groundwater caused 65% of the waterborne outbreaks and 66% of the waterborne illness which occurred in noncommunity and individual water systems but only 32% of the outbreaks and 31% illness in community water systems. Illnesses most frequently transmitted through groundwater included acute gastroenteritis of undetermined etiology, chemical poisonings, hepatitis A, shigellosis, and viral gastroenteritis. Waterborne outbreaks in water systems using untreated well water were caused primarily by the overflow or seepage of sewage from septic tanks or cesspools, chemical contamination, and surface runoff contamination. An increase in the number of outbreaks resulting from the use of untreated, contaminated well water was noted during the summer months.ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Article workforma?r3Dorman, M. A. C. D. Blair J. K. Collins B. J. Beaty1985qDetection of bovine herpesvirus 1 DNA immobilized on nitrocellulose by hybridization with biotinylated DNA probes990-995 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2260A molecular hybridization technique using biotinylated DNA probes was used to detect bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) nucleic acid species immobilized on nitrocellulose. Seventeen recombinant plasmids containing HindIII restriction fragments of the BHV-1 genome were compared for their ability to detect immobilized BHV-1 DNA from purified virus and infected cells. One probe, pCB2, labeled by nick translation with either 3H or biotin, detected as little as 10 pg of viral DNA. In time course experiments, BHV-1 DNA could be detected by 2 h postinfection in 10(6) infected cells. BHV-1 DNA was detected in nasal swabs and exudate from experimentally infected cattle, even when specimens had been stored for over a year. In a retrospective study of a respiratory disease outbreak in a feedlot, hybridization was compared with virus isolation for diagnosis of BHV-1 infections. The sensitivity rate was 0.68 with virus isolation as the referent standard. Blot hybridization provides a novel approach with unique applications for the diagnosis of bovine herpesvirus infections. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform?sMatthess, G. A. Pekdeger1981\Concepts of a survival and transport model of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in groundwater149-159$The Science of the Total Environment21For the assessment of the transport of bacteria and viruses in groundwater and for the interpretation of the available data, certain controlling factors should be determined. The survival time of bacteria and viruses in groundwater is different for the specific species and for the specific groundwater environment (temperature, groundwater chemistry and autochthonic population of microorganisms). The survival time depends on the specific elimination rate in a certain environment and on the initial concerntration of the pollutants. The underground transport of the microorganisms which may be described by the general transport equation, must consider dispersion, adsorption and biological elimination. Since there is a wide range of variation in the available data, model calculations of the transport are necessary. Furthermore the effects of filtration and suffosion are considered to be of importance.ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform?tDMatsuura, K. M. Ishihura T. Nakayama S. Hasegawa O. Morita H. Uetake1988GEcological studies on reovirus pollution of rivers in Toyama Prefecture 1221-1234Microbiology and Immunology3212Reoviruses (reos) were isolated from river water in various areas of Toyama Prefecture. The frequency of reo isolation was higher in the river water, the basin of which has a larger human population. The degree of river contamination with reo paralleled that with the Escherichia coli group of organisms, and reos were frequently isolated from sewage, too. The high antibody-positive (greater than or equal to 1:8 or greater than or equal to 1:10) rates against reos in humans and other animals tested (swine, cattle, and field rodents) indicated their wide-spread infection with reos. These results suggested that the major source of reos present in the river water may be the excretion by humans and other animals, especially the former. Survival experiments in which reos were added into the filtered or centrifuged river water and kept at various temperatures, revealed that reos survived for more than 3 years at 5 C. In the field experiment where reos suspended in cellophane tubes were kept in an agricultural water stream in winter (water temperatures below 10 C), they survived for 6 months until the water temperature rose above 20 C in summer. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform?uRansone, L. J. A. Dasgupta1989cMultiple isoelectric forms of poliovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: evidence for phosphorylation 4563-4568Journal of Virology6311Poliovirus-specific RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3Dpol) was purified to apparent homogeneity. A single polypeptide of an apparent molecular weight of 63,000 catalyzes the synthesis of dimeric and monomeric RNA products in response to the poliovirion RNA template. Analysis of purified 3Dpol by two-dimensional electrophoresis showed multiple forms of 3Dpol, suggesting posttranslational modification of the protein in virus-infected cells. The two major forms of 3Dpol appear to have approximate pI values of 7.1 and 7.4. Incubation of purified 3Dpol with calf intestinal phosphatase resulted in almost complete disappearance of the pI 7.1 form and a concomitant increase in the intensity of the pI 7.4 form of 3Dpol. Addition of 32P-labeled Pi during infection of HeLa cells with poliovirus resulted in specific labeling of 3Dpol and 3CD, a viral protein which contains the entire 3Dpol sequence. Both 3Dpol and 3CD appear to be phosphorylated at serine residues. Ribosomal salt washes prepared from both mock- and poliovirus-infected cells contain phosphatases capable of dephosphorylating quantitatively the phosphorylated form (pI 7.1) of 3Dpol. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform ?vIMuscillo, M. G. la Rosa F. A. Aulicino P. Orsini C. Bellucci R. Micarelli1995Comparison of cDNA probe hybridizations and RT-PCR detection methods for the identification and differentiation of enteroviruses isolated from sea water samples 1309-1316Water Research295(Original) Enteroviruses, water pollution, probe hybridization, PCR, genotyping, polymerase chain-reaction, compelete nucleotide-sequence, hepatitis-A virus, reverse transcription/clinical specimens, molecular-cloning, poliovirus, picornaviruses, amplification, coxsackvirus-B4 Fifteen enteroviruses (EVs) previously isolated from Tyrrhenian sea water samples were used. They were first identified by traditional dot-blot and Northern-blot hybridizations with a group of cDNA probes from cloned Poliovirus 1 and Coxsackievirus B4 and oligodeoxynucleotides complementary to echovirus 6 and 9 sequences. Using both wild viruses and known enteroviruses a reverse-PCR protocol was then set up followed by cDNA sequencing of the fragments generated. The sequences of primers were selected from a consensus of several 5' non-coding ends of enterovirus genomes, representing highly conserved regions. The downstream (region 577-603) and the upstream (region 436-465) oligonucleotide primers carried an extra sequence in order to generate BamHI and a HindIII restriction sites at the 5' and 3' end respectively of the amplified cDNA fragments for directional cloning in a plasmid. The downstream 5'NC primer was 5'-biotinylated in order to allow direct sequencing of the amplicon, when possible, after strand separations on streptavidin coated magnetic beads. The PCR of reverse transcribed viral RNAs resulted in a 167-170 b.p. cDNA product on ethidium bromide-stained 2% agarose gels in all the samples and reference viruses. The test is negative on reoviruses, hepatitis A and uninfected BGM cells and detects < 1 TCID50 viral particles. Sequences of cloned fragments were compared with sequences of cloned enteroviruses stored in commercial data banks. The 5'NC region of a reference echovirus 5 was also cloned and sequenced to improve the comparison. On the basis of deduced genetic distances, three poliovirus 1, eight coxsakievirus B5, four coxsakievirus B1 were diagnosed. One poliovirus Sabin 2 was isolated together with a coxsackievirus-related strain in the same lysate sample. The reliability and sensitivity of this RT-PCR method makes it an attractive approach to virus detection in environmental samples.ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Article workform<?w Koff, R. S.1995?Preventing hepatitis A infections in travelers to endemic areas586-5901American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene536WIn 1995, 24 million travelers from the United States are anticipated to visit developing countries where hepatitis A is endemic. Passive immunization with immune globulin, before exposure or within two weeks following exposure to the hepatitis A virus, protects against clinical disease in < 70-90% of immunized individuals. The duration of protection, measured in months, is relatively short. Active immunization with a single dose of inactivated hepatitis A virus vaccine appears to provide greater protective efficacy and, based on the persistence of vaccine-induced protective antibodies, should provide protection for years. Booster doses given between six and 12 months are likely to provide immunity that may persist for at least a decade. The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine approved for use in the United States has been clinically well-tolerated; mild transient soreness at the injection site is the most frequently reported adverse reaction. Immunization with inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is a safe and effective method for travelers to endemic areas to protect themselves against this infection. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Article workform:?x.Pina, S. M. Puig F. Lucena J. Jofre R. Girones1998sViral pollution in the environment and in shellfish: human adenovirus detection by PCR as an index of human viruses 3376-3382&Applied and Environmental Microbiology649A study of the presence of human viruses (adenoviruses, enteroviruses, and hepatitis A viruses [HAVs]) in environmental and shellfish samples was carried out by applying DNA and cDNA amplification techniques by PCR. The detection of human adenoviruses by PCR was also examined as a potential molecular test to monitor viral pollution. The samples studied were urban and slaughterhouse sewage, river water, seawater, and shellfish. Enteroviruses were quantified by PFU in Buffalo green monkey kidney cells and fecal coliforms and phages of Bacteroides fragilis HSP40 were also evaluated in some of the samples. The amplification of viral DNA and cDNA has shown a high prevalence of human viruses that would not be detected by the use of classical techniques, such as the quantification of PFU in cell lines. The results of the analysis of slaughterhouse sewage samples together with the test of farm animal feces indicate that the adenoviruses and the HAVs detected in the environment are mostly of human origin. A significative correlation between the detection of human viruses by PCR and the values of bacteriophages of B. fragilis HSP40 in urban raw sewage was observed. Human adenoviruses were the viruses most frequently detected throughout the year, and all the samples that were positive for enteroviruses or HAVs were also positive for human adenoviruses. The results suggest that the detection of adenoviruses by PCR could be used as an index of the presence of human viruses in the environment where a molecular index is acceptable. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Article workformK+|7<Sheldon, T. A. Boardman, G. D. Flick, G. J. Gallagher, D. L.2008jEffect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on freely suspended and bivalve-associated T7 bacteriophage345-50 J Food Prot712Animals Bacteriophage T7/*growth & development Bivalvia/*virology Colony Count, Microbial Consumer Product Safety Food Handling/*methods Food Microbiology Humans *Hydrostatic Pressure Kinetics Ostreidae/*virology Shellfish/*virology Temperature Time FactorsFeb@The effectiveness of hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) for inactivating viruses has been evaluated in only a limited number of studies, and most of the work has been performed with viruses freely suspended in distilled water. In this work, HPP inactivation of freely suspended and shellfish-associated bacteriophage T7 was studied. T7 was selected in hopes that it could serve as a model for animal virus behavior. Clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were homogeneously blended separately and inoculated with bacteriophage T7. The inoculated bivalve meat and the freely suspended virus samples were subjected to HPP under the following conditions: 2, 4, and 6 min at 241.3, 275.8, and 344.7 MPa pressure and temperatures of 29.4 to 35, 37.8 to 43.3, and 46.1 to 51.7 degrees C. Reductions of 7.8 log PFU (100% inactivation) were achieved for freely suspended T7 at 344.7 MPa for 2 min at 37.8 to 43.3 degrees C. At 46.1 to 51.7 degrees C, T7 associated with either clams or oysters was inactivated at nearly 100% (>4 log PFU) at all pressure levels and durations tested. These results indicate that T7 is readily inactivated by HPP under the proper conditions, may be made more susceptible to HPP by mixing with shellfish meat, and may serve as a viable model for the response of several animal viruses to HPP.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=18326185Sheldon, Todd August Boardman, Gregory D Flick, George J Gallagher, Daniel L Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't United States Journal of food protection J Food Prot. 2008 Feb;71(2):34?zWhitby, K. J. A. Garson1995xOptimisation and evaluation of a quantitative chemiluminescent polymerase chain reaction assay for hepatitis C virus RNA75-88Journal of Virological Methods511A(Original) Hepatitis C virus, quantitative PCR, chemiluminescenceA quantitative non-isotopic assay for measuring hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA has been developed and evaluated. Viral RNA extracted from serum is reverse transcribed and amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using biotinylated 5' non-coding region primers. PCR products are captured on streptavidin coated microtitre plates, denatured with sodium hydroxide and hybridised with an alkaline phosphatase-labelled oligonucleotide probe. Quantification is achieved by measuring the intensity of light emitted by a dioxetane-based chemiluminescent substrate. The chief advantages of the assay are: (i) extreme sensitivity with the ability to detect single molecules of HCV cDNA, (ii) a 5 log10 dynamic range sufficient to cover the 10(3)-10(8) genomes/ml viraemia levels typically seen in patient samples, (iii) specificity and reproducibility suitable for application in a clinical context, and (iv) a rapid non-nested assay format with the ability to handle large throughputs and with a potential for automation. The feasibility of using the assay to monitor viraemia level changes in patients undergoing interferon therapy for chronic HCV infection has been demonstrated. ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Article workform?{ Bardell, D.1995VHerpes simplex virus type 1 applied experimentally to gloves used for food preparation 1150-1152Journal of Food Protection5810:(Original) Herpesvirus, saliva, latex gloves, lettuce, hamDroplets of saliva containing herpes simplex virus type 1 were placed on latex disposable gloves. The temperature at the surface of the gloved hand was 34 degrees C. There was no loss of infectious virus before 15 min. Between 15 and 30 min there was a 2-log-cycle drop in titer, and infectious virus could still be recovered after 1 h, the longest period tested. The drop in titer was due to drying of the saliva, which occurred at approximately 21 min. Infectious virus was transferred by touch to lettuce and ham at 0 min when the virus-containing droplets were in a liquid condition, and after 30 and 60 min when the droplets were dry.ProCite Record Number: 5870Journal Short Form workform ?|Lazarowitz, S. G. P. W. Choppin1975tEnhancement of the infectivity of influenza A and B viruses by proteolytic cleavage of the hemagglutinin polypeptide440-454Virology682The infectivity of virions of the WSN strain of influenza A (A/WSN) and the 1760 strain of influenza B (B/1760) which possess their hemagglutinin in the form of the uncleaved HA polypeptide can be enahnced as much as 100-fold by proteolytic cleavage of HA to yield HA1 and HA2. Hemagglutinating activity is unaffected by cleavage. The HA polypeptide of A/WSN virions is susceptible to cleavage by trypsin and plasmin whereas that of B/1760 virion is resistant to plasmin. The increase in infectivity can be demonstrated in different cell types, i.e., MDBK, BHK21-F, CEF, or HKCC cells, as well as in the chicken embryo, and in titrations in both liquid medium and plaque assays under agar. Chymotrypsin cleaves the HA polypeptide of WSN virions in the same general region of the molecule as trypsin and plasmin, but without the enhancement of infectivity produced by the latter enzymes. Incubation of WSN virions with chymotrypsin prevents the enhancement by subsequent treatment with trypsin, but the increase in infectivity caused by an initial treatment with trypsin is not abolished by subsequent treatment with chymotrypsin. These results indicate that enhancement of infecitivity of influenza virions results from proteolytic cleavage at a specific site on the HA molecule, however an increase in infectivity is not associated with cleavage at a nearby but different site. Both A/WSN and B/1760 virions are capable of undergoing multiple cycles of replicatation in cells under conditions in which no cleaved HA polypeptides are detected on the virions produced. These results are compatible with the enhancement of infectivity being the result of an increase upon cleavage in the efficiency of some stage in the initiation of infection beyond the initial adsorption step. The increase in infectivity caused by proteolytic cleavage of the HA polypeptide provides a biochemical explanation for the previously observed enhancement of plaquing efficiency of influenza viruses by the inclusion of pancreatin or trypsin in the agar overlay.ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Short Form workform?~,Cromeans, T. C. Humphrey M. Sobsey H. Fields1989^Use of immunogold preembedding technique to detect hepatitis A viral antigen in infected cells314-320American Journal of Anatomy1852-3Localization of virus and viral antigen in cell cultures infected with a rapidly replicating isolate of strain HM-175 of hepatitis A virus (HAV; pHM-175) was accomplished by using immunogold probes. Cells infected under one-step growth curve conditions were prefixed with 2% paraformaldehyde and 0.1-0.001% saponin at appropriate times postinfection for detection of maximum virus and viral antigen. An indirect labeling technique was employed using monoclonal antibody to HAV followed by 5 nm gold-antimouse IgG conjugate. Cells were then fixed by standard electron microscopy techniques and thin sectioned. This prefixation technique allowed penetration of the immunogold probes and moderate preservation of ultrastructure. Within infected cell cytoplasm, numerous antigenic sites were labeled with six to 200 gold particles. Two types of cells were infected with HAV and somewhat different results were obtained with the two cell types. In BS-C-1 cells, where a cytopathic effect (CPE) was not observed, myelin figures were immunogold labeled or frequently were located near immunogold-labeled sites. Vesicles containing viruslike particles (14-22 nm) were also observed. A significant observation in infected FRhK-4 cells was the presence of multivesicular bodies labeled with immunogold. Microfilaments were commonly seen near the multivesicular bodies. Our results demonstrate that the choice of prefixation method for immunogold labeling should be empirically determined for the cell type and condition. ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Article workform ?Drach, J. C. C. Shipman Jr.1977qThe selective inhibition of viral DNA synthesis by chemotherapeutic agents: an indicator of clinical usefulness? 396-406)Annals of the New York Academy of Science2843A cell culture system has been utilized to measure the effects of drugs on DNA synthesis in uninfected and HSV-(herpes simplex virus)-infected KB cells. DNA from HSV-infected cells was separated into viral and cellular components by isopycnic centrifugation in CsCl gradients. The amount of [3H]thymidine incorporated into acid-insoluble material was measured in the absence and presence of drugs. Dose-response relationships were established by linearly regressing the probit value of the percent inhibition DNA synthesis against the logarithm of drug concentration. Fifty percent inhibitory (I50) concentrations were interpolated from the corresponding regression lines for inhibition of the following: (i) DNA synthesis is uninfected KB cells, (ii) total DNA synthesis in HSV-infected KB cells (iii) cellular DNA synthesis in HSV-infected cells, and (iv) viral DNA synthesis in HSV-infected cells. We have derived an index (SI, selective index) that quantifies the preferential inhibition of viral or uninfected cellular DNA synthesis. This index can be expressed as SI = log10 I50 concentration for DNA synthesis in uninfected cells divided by I50 concentration for viral DNA synthesis in HSV-infected cells. The SI is positive if viral DNA synthesis is inhibited preferentially and negative if uninfected cellular DNA synthesis is more strongly inhibited. A positive SI value of 0.5 was obtained for the clinically useful antiviral drug arabinosyladenine (ara-A) and a value of 0.4 for its metabolite, arabinosylhypoxanthine (ara-H). Although the adenosine deaminase inhibitor coformycin greatly increased the potency of ara-A, the inhibitor did not increase the selectivity of the drug (SI = 0.3). Stallimycin (distimycin A) (SI = 0.3) and phosphonoacetic acid (SI = 0.3) were similarly effective in preferentially inhibiting the synthesis of HSV DNA. In contrast, arabinosylcytosine (ara-C) and ribavirin inhibited DNA synthesis in uninfected cells to a greater degree than viral DNA synthesis (SI = -0.5 and -1.9, respectively). An analysis of the advantages and limitations of this experimental procedure is made and the suggestion is offered that the in vitro determination of a drug's selective index may be a valid predictor of clinical usefulness. ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Short Form workforme?EMcNulty, M. S. G. R. Pearson J. B. McFerran D. S. Collins G. M. Allan1976EReovirus-like agent (rotavirus) associated diarrhoea in neonatal pigs55-63Veterinary Microbiology1^Reovirus-like particles were detected by electron microscopy in faeces of pigs with diarrhoea. Attempts to adapt the virus to grow in pig kidney cell cultures were unsuccessful. By immunofluorescent staining techniques the pig virus was shown to be antigenically related to the calf rotavirus. Colostrum-deprived piglets were readily infected with the virus. Viral replication occurred in villous epithelial cells in the small intestines of infected pigs, and virus was detected in the faeces for at least 7 days post infection. All infected piglets developed diarrhoea whereas uninfected controls did not.ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Short Form workform?.Raphael, R. A. S. A. Sattar V. S. Springthorpe1987]Lack of human rotavirus inactivation by residual chlorine in municipal drinking water systems67-69*Revue internationale des sciences de l'eau33-4This study tested the effect of residual chlorine in municipally treated drinking water on the infectivity of a lab-adapted strain (Wa) of human rotavirus and the Sabin strain of polivirus type 1. The water samples were collected as either plant effluent (PE) at a municipal water treatment facility or as tap water (TW) at the university. The viruses, suspended in either distilled water or tryptose phosphate broth, were added to the water samples and held for 1 h at 22ºC. There was no significant reduction in the plaque titre of the rotavirus in any of the samples. Whereas, a >99.9% loss in poliovirus titre occured in both PE and TW irrespective of the type of suspending medium used.ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Short Form workform?Koo, D. K. Maloney R. Tauxe1996NEpidemiology of diarrheal disease outbreaks on cruise ships, 1986 through 1993545-547+Journal of the American Medical Association2757OBJECTIVE--To describe the epidemiology of cruise-associated diarrheal disease outbreaks from 1986 through 1993, to determine if the incidence had changed since 1985, and to determine the preventability of outbreaks that continue to occur. DESIGN--The numerator data were collated from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) outbreak investigation reports from 1986 through 1993. The denominator data were summations of cruise ship data on the number of passengers and length of cruises collected during routine diarrheal illness surveillance, available only for the period 1989 through 1993. SETTINGS--Cruise ships with outbreaks of diarrheal disease. PARTICIPANTS--Cruise ship passengers and crew of staff ho participated in the original investigations. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--The incidence of outbreaks during the study period, pathogens isolated, and vehicles of transmission implicated in investigations. RESULTS--Among cruises of 3 to 15 days, CDC staff investigated 1.4 outbreaks per 1000 cruises, or 2.3 outbreaks per 10 million passenger-days. An etiologic agent was implicated in 21 (68%) of 31 investigated outbreaks: bacterial in 12, viral in nine. A specific vehicle of transmission was identified in 16. The most common vehicles of transmission were undercooked scallops (three outbreaks caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli), eggs (two outbreaks caused by Salmonella serotype Enteritidis, one by Norwalk-like virus), and food items provided by caterers during onshore excursions (three outbreaks, one caused by Shigella sonnei). CONCLUSIONS--Observance of two simple precautions could have prevented almost one third (5/16, or 31%) of the investigated outbreaks on cruise ships. Cruise lines have been reminded to cook seafoods thoroughly and to use pasteurized eggs for menu items calling for pooled eggs. Preventing food handlers from working while ill and not using onshore caterers for offship excursions might have prevented at least an additional one third (5/16) of these outbreaks. ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Article workform7?,Pintó, R. M. F. X. Abad R. Gajardo A. Bosch1996-Detection of infectious astroviruses in water 1811-1813&Applied and Environmental Microbiology625LA method based on the infection of CaCo-2 cells and molecular hybridization with a specific cDNA probe has been developed for the detection of infectious astroviruses in environmental samples. By this procedure wild-type astroviruses have been detected in water from an area where a concurrent gastroenteritis outbreak was reported.ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Article workform? Bardell, D.1997aSurvival of herpes simplex virus type 1 on some common foods routinely touched before consumption 1259-1261Journal of Food Protection60101(Original) Herpesvirus, saliva, lettuce, tomatoesfDroplets of saliva containing herpes simplex virus type 1 were placed on the skin of tomatoes and the upper surface of lettuce leaves. There was no loss of virus infectivity titer at refrigerator temperature (2 degrees C) at any time examined up to 1 h, the longest period tested. At room temperature (22 to 24 degrees C) there was a 2-log drop in titer between 30 and 60 min, but some infectious virus was still present at 1 h. The virus-containing saliva remained in a liquid state at 2 degrees C. At 22 to 24 degrees C the droplets became dry at approximately 50 min. Implications of the findings are discussed.ProCite Record Number: 5880Journal Short Form workform{?-Lazarowitz, S. G. R. W. Compans P. W. Choppin1973rProteolytic cleavage of the hemagglutinin polypeptide of influenza virus. Function of the uncleaved polypeptide HA199-212Virology521gThe cleavage of the HA polypeptide, the largest glycoprotein of influenza virus, to polypeptides HA1 and HA2 has been studied using the WSN strain of influenza A0 and the RI/5- strain of influenza A2 grown in different host cells. Cleavage of the HA polypeptide is not required for the assembly of infectious, hemagglutinating virions. Cleavage is both strain depedent and host cell depedent, and correlates with the extent of cell damage, suggesting that the enzymes involved are host cell specified. Virions grown in MDNK cells without calf serum in the medium contain almost entirely unvleaved HA polypeptides. Virions harvested early in the growth cycle contain more uncleaved HA polypeptide than virions harvested late from the same cells when cytopathic effects are extensive. The proteolytic nature of the cleavage has been demonstrated in vitro with trypsin. Comparison of the specific hemagglutinating activity and infectivity of virions which contain different amounts of the uncleaved HA polypeptide and the cleavage products HA1 and HA2, and of the capacity of such virions to react with the soluble glycoprotein receptor substance fetuin, have shown that uncleaved HA polypeptides are as active in hemagglutination and absorption to cellular and soluble receptors as are the disulfide-bonded complexes composed of HA1 plus HA2. The proteolytic cleavage of the HA polypeptide to HA1 and HA2 is thus not required for virus assembly or for full expression of the biological properties of the virion. Rather, it appears to be a nonessential results of events occurring in infected cells which are undergoing cytopathic effects.ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Short Form workforma?+Dahling, D. R. R. S. Safferman B. A. Wright1989lIsolation of enterovirus and reovirus from sewage and treated effluents in selected Puerto Rican communities503-506&Applied and Environmental Microbiology552:Sewage treatment plant effluents were surveyed for viral contributions to gastroenteritis outbreaks in Puerto Rico. Of the 15 sewage treatment plants studied, all discharged their effluents upstream from water treatment plant intakes. No base-line data on the degree of viral challenge to these sewage treatment plants or the subsequent reduction of viruses before discharge existed. Enterovirus counts were generally much higher than those found in the continental United States. At four plants, viruses in the incoming sewage exceeded 100,000 PFU/liter, and one of these, a trickling filter plant, was discharging 24,000 PFU/liter to receiving waters. Virus identification showed that more than 80% of the enterovirus isolates were coxsackievirus B5. These overwhelming viral numbers pointed to defects in the sewage treatment processes. Without reasonable barriers to protect receiving waters, several of the downstream communities were using raw waters that posed extraordinary demands on the ability of their water treatment plants to supply virologically safe drinking water. ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Article workform#?'Mebus, C. A. R. G. Wyatt A. Z. Kapikian1977`Intestinal lesions induced in gnotobiotic calves by the virus of human infantile gastroenteritis273-282Veterinary Pathology143Four gnotobiotic calves with intestinal lesions induced by third and fourth calf passages of virus of human infantile gastroenteritis were studied by light microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and by immunofluorescence. Calves, 25--72 hours old, were examined 0.5 hours, 3 hours, 7 hours, and 48 hours after the onset of diarrhea. Intestinal histology of infected calves was compared to that of two noninoculated gnotobiotic calves 48 and 72 hours old. The sequence of events in the small intestine was infection of the absorptive villous epithelial cells, replacement of the tall columnar villous epithelial cells with cuboidal and squamous cells, shortening of the villi, enlargement of reticular cells, lymphocytic infiltration of the villous lamina propria and repair. ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Short Form workform?,Richardson, K. L. A. B. Margolin C. P. Gerba1988\A novel method for liberating viral nucleic acid for assay of water samples with cDNA probes13-21Journal of Virological Methods221s(Original) Poliovirus, human placental RNasin, phenol-chloroform extraction, dot-blot hybridization, heat treatmentmRapid and sensitive methods are needed for the detection of enteric viruses to ensure proper drinking water quality. Gene probes have been shown to be useful for this purpose. Previously, samples to be assayed were treated with a series of phenol-chloroform extractions to release the viral nucleic acid. We have developed a more rapid procedure for liberating or exposing the genome of poliovirus for probing. In this study, a poliovirus model was used to test the ability of heat (65 degrees C for 30 min) for release or exposure of viral nucleic acid. Several different RNase inhibitors were tested for their ability to prevent viral RNA degradation. A comparison of the two methods indicates phenol-chloroform extraction is not necessary before probing. In addition to saving 2-4 h of time, maximum sensitivity levels were consistently obtained using this novel procedure. ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Short Form workform?NLieb, S. R. A. Gunn R. Medina N. Singh R. D. May H. T. Janowski W. E. Woodward1985SNorwalk virus gastroenteritis. An outbreak associated with a cafeteria at a college259-268 American Journal of Epidemiology1212T(Original) Disease outbreak, food poisoning, gastroenteritis, Norwalk agent, virusesXAn explosive outbreak of gastrointestinal illness occurred among students and employees at a small college in Florida in November 1980. Common symptoms were diarrhea, nausea, weakness, abdominal cramps, chills, vomiting, and low-grade fever. Cases of illness were identified in 40% of 628 students and 15% of 162 employees who responded to a survey. Among students, there was a sevenfold excess risk associated with eating one or more meals at the campus cafeteria November 3-5 (p much less than 0.001). Tossed salad from one meal was strongly associated with illness (p less than 0.0001). Fecal contamination of the salad was documented, although the source of contamination was not identified. Person-to-person spread could not be demonstrated. Seroconversion to Norwalk antigen occurred in significantly more cases (5/6) than noncases (1/6) (p = 0.04). ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Article workformV?+Pirtle, E. C. T. A. Proescholdt G. W. Beran1997DTrial of heat inactivation of selected viruses following iiradiation426-429Journal of Food Protection604)(Original) Irradiation, virus, pork, heat7Four selected viruses were irradiated in ground pork with an electron beam at absorbed doses of 4.4 to 5.27 kG. Irradiated and nonirradiated viruses were heated at four temperature for four time intervals and assayed for surviving virus. Data were examined for evidence of irradiation-heat interaction to determine whether absorbed irradiation would sensitize virus so that a lesser amount of heat would be required for inactivation. It was determined that irradiation does not increase lability to heat to a level that has pratical application in virus inactivation.ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Article workform?Woody, M. A. D. O. Cliver1995cEffects of temperature and host cell growth phase on replication of F-specific RNA coliphage Q beta 1520-1526&Applied and Environmental Microbiology614Human enteric viruses have been found in groundwater in the absence of fecal coliforms. Because detection of human enteric viruses is costly, time-consuming, and lacking in sensitivity, F-specific RNA (FRNA) coliphages, which infect Escherichia coli by attachment to F pili, are being examined for suitability as indicators of human enteric viruses in groundwater. Temperatures and host cell growth conditions that constrain F-pilus expression will limit FRNA coliphage replication in groundwater and wastewater, as is desirable in an indicator. Below 25 degrees C F-pilus synthesis ceases; FRNA coliphage Qbeta did not replicate below this temperature in batch cultures. One-step replication studies indicated that the replicative cycle is prolonged and that fewer progeny are released as the temperature decreases. The decreases in phage replication observed in the one-step replication studies were a consequence of fewer cells infected as the temperature was lowered or as host cells entered stationary phase. The numbers of phage particles released from infected cells did not change. The minimum temperature for replication of Qbeta, 25 degrees C, is not maintained in wastewater and does not occur in Wisconsin groundwater. On the basis of temperature and host cell growth phase, we have concluded that extensive replication of FRNA coliphages does not occur in wastewater and groundwater in Wisconsin and areas with similar cool climates. ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Article workform|?)Battigelli, D. A. M. D. Sobsey D. C. Lobe1993OThe inactivation of hepatitis A virus and other model viruses by UV irradiation339-342Water Science and Technology273-4y(Original) Disinfection, ultraviolet light, heptitis A virus, coxsackievirus B5, rotavirus SA-11, coliphages, MS2, ØX174 The sensitivity of HAV strain HM-175, coxsackievirus type B-5, rotavirus strain SA-11, and bacteriophages MS2 and ØX174 to ultraviolet radiation of 254 nm wavelength in phosphate buffered water was determined. Purified stocks of the viruses were combined and exposed to collimated UV irradiation in a stirred reactor for a total dose of up to 40 mW sec/cm2. Virus survival kinetics were determined from samples removed at dose intervals. The 4 log (99.99%) inactivation doeses for HAV, CB5, SA-11 and ØX174 were 16, 29, 42, and 9 mW sec/cm2, respectively. MS2 exhibited the greatest resistance in buffered water with less than 1 log reduction observed after exposure to 25 mW sec/cm2. A 15 mW sec/cm2 exposure induced a 7 log reduction of ØX174, while inactivation of HAV, CB5 and SA11 was intermediate, with at least 3 log reductions occurring after a 20 mW sec/cm2 exposure. The results of these experiments indicate that UV irradiation can effectively inactivate viruses of public health concern in drinking water.ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Short Form workformt?%Brown, E. A. R. W. Jansen S. M. Lemon1989eCharacterization of a simian hepatitis A virus (HAV): antigenic and genetic comparison with human HAV 4932-4937Journal of Virology6311gPA21, a strain of hepatitis A virus (HAV) recovered from a naturally infected captive owl monkey, is indistinguishable from human HAV in polyclonal radioimmunoassays and cross-neutralization studies. However, cDNA-RNA hybridization has suggested a significant difference at the genomic level between PA21 and a reference human virus, HM175. Further characterization of this unique HAV was undertaken in an effort to determine the extent of genetic divergence from human HAV and its relation to the conserved antigenic structure of the virus. The close similarity between PA21 and HM175 antigens was confirmed with an extended panel of 18 neutralizing murine monoclonal antibodies: a reproducible difference in binding to the two viruses was detected with only one antibody (B5-B3). The nucleotide sequence of the P1 region of the PA21 genome had only 83.2% identity with HM175 virus, a difference approximately twice as great as that found between any two human strains. Most nucleotide changes were in third base positions, and the amino acid sequences of the capsid proteins were largely conserved. Amino acid replacements were clustered in the carboxy terminus of VP1 and the amino-terminal regions of VP2 and VP1. These data indicate that PA21 virus represents a unique genotype of HAV and suggest the existence of an ecologically isolated niche for HAV among feral owl monkeys. ProCite Record Number: 5890Journal Short Form workform4?5Lenaway, D. D. R. Brockmann G. J. Dolan F. Cruz-Uribe1989yAn outbreak of an enterovirus-like illness at a community wading pool: implications for public health inspection programs889-890!American Journal of Public Health797In June 1987, following an outbreak of an illness among children participating in a swim class, investigation revealed that 26 children who had swum in the outdoor wading pool were more likely to be ill than those who had not (OR 12.1, 95% CI = 2.9, 74.2). The pool chlorination system was operating improperly prior to onset of illness and chlorine levels were at or very near zero. This report emphasizes the need for operators and inspectors to give special attention to disinfection of wading pools. ProCite Record Number: 5900Journal Short Form workform ?)Brown, T. S. J. F. Malina Jr. B. D. Moore19745Virus removal by diatomaceous-earth filtration-Part 198-102/Journal of the American Water Works AssociationThis study, involving the removal of bacterial virus from water using diatomaceous-earth filter aids, covers the comparative properties of uncoated and polyelectrolye-coated products as they affect the process. The work is based on studies using bacteriophage T2 for Escherichia coli. ProCite Record Number: 5900Journal Article workform?=Rose, J. B. C. P. Gerba S. N. Singh G. A. Toranzos B. Keswick1986%Isolating viruses from finished water56-61/Journal of the American Water Works Association71Reduction of enteroviruses and rotaviruses averaged 81 and 93 percent, respectively, at a full-scale 205-mgd (776-ML/d) plant whose treatment train includes chemical flocculation, sand filtration, and chlorination. The highest reduction of enteroviruses occurred during prechlorination-flocculation and filtration, whereas the highest reduction of rotaviruses occurred during prechlorination-clarification and final chlorination. Enteroviruses or rotaviruses occurred in 24 percent of the finished water samples, which had >0.2 mg free chlorine/L and met coliform bacteria (1/100mL) and turbidity (1 ntu) standards. Although major plant deficiencies may have been responsible for the occurrence of viruses in the finished water, the results of this study indicate that finished water, with measurable levels of free residual chlorine and meeting standards for coliform and turbidity, cannot be assumed to be virus free.ProCite Record Number: 5900Journal Short Form workform?Yang, F. X. Xu1993|A new method of RNA preparation for detection of hepatitis A virus in environmental samples by the polymerase chain reaction77-84Journal of Virological Methods431P(Original) Hepatitis A virus, polymerase chain reaction, extraction of virus RNA(Summary) A new method based on RNA preparation from shellfish by polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) extraction was developed for the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The extraction provides high yield and the extracted RNA is undegraded. This method proved to be particularly useful for detection of RNA viruses from environmental samples by PCR. ProCite Record Number: 5900Journal Article workform.?;Beaulieux, F. D. M. See I. Leparc-Goffart M. Aymard B. Lina1997Use of magnetic beads versus guanidium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform RNA extraction followed by polymerase chain reaction for the rapid, sensitive detection of enterovirus RNA11-15Research in Virology1481@(Original) RNA, PCR, enterovirus, dynabeads, extraction, methodsThe current study compares the sensitivity of RNA extraction using magnetic beads versus that of a standard extraction method. Streptavadin-coated magnetic beads were labelled with a biotinylated, enterovirus-specific oligonucleotide. RNA was extracted using labelled beads or guanidium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform from 1, 0.1 and 0.01 TCID50/100 microliters of stock coxsackievirus types A9 and B3, echovirus type 11, enterovirus type 70 and poliovirus type 1. Each strain was tested three times. RNA extraction using magnetic beads was > 50% faster than the standard method. The RNA was amplified using RT-PCR, and the products were detected using agarose gel electrophoresis; 6/15 and 7/15 samples at an initial concentration of 0.01 TCID50/100 microliters were detected using magnetic beads or standard extraction, respectively. Negative-stain electron microscopy was used to determine that 0.01 TCID50/100 microliters of coxsackievirus B3 contained approximately 3 genomes. Thus, use of magnetic beads labelled with an enterovirus-specific oligonucleotide was less toxic, more rapid and as sensitive as the current standard RNA extraction method.ProCite Record Number: 5900Journal Short Form workform7? Lerner, R. A.1983Synthetic vaccines66-74Scientific American2482Synthetic vaccines are designed with the help of computer-graphics programs. These displays generated by Arthur J. Olson of the Research Institute of Scripps Clinic show a method whereby parts of a viral protein that are on the surface of a virus, and therefore accessible to antibodies, can be identified. The backbone of the surface domain of the protein on the outer shell of the tomato bushy-stunt virus is displayed (1) on the basis of coordinates determined by Stephen C. Harrison of Harvard University and his colleagues. A single peptide of the protein is picked out in yellow, with the side chains of its component amino acids indicated in atomic detail (2). The peptide is enlarged and a sphere representing a water molecule is displayed (3). The sphere is rolled around the peptide to generate a map of the surface accessible to water (4); it does so, following an algorithm developed by Michael L. Connolly, by placing a dot at each point of its closest contact with the peptide, taking account of the sphere's own van der Waals radius (zone of influence, in effect) and that of each atom of the peptide and the rest of the protein. A similar-dot-surface map is generated to show what parts of the peptide are still accessible to water when three copies of the protein are associated in an array on the surface of the virus (5) and when four such arrays (out of 60) are in position on the outer surface of the virus (6). ProCite Record Number: 5910Journal Short Form workform.?Rotbart, H. A.19900Enzymatic RNA amplification of the enteroviruses438-442 Journal of Clinical Microbiology283Enteroviruses, enzymatic RNADEnteroviruses are among the most common causes of childhood infection. Current diagnostic techniques are often too slow and too insensitive to benefit the patient optimally. This report describes a modified polymerase chain reaction technique by which enteroviral RNA can be amplified, over a few hours, to a level detectable by agarose mini-gel electrophoresis or nucleic acid hybridization or both. Three oligomeric regions of great homology among the enteroviruses were identified and designated as a potential primer pair and probe. With this combination, all 11 of the enterovirus serotypes tested, representing the major subgroups of these pathogens, were successfully amplified and detected. The sensitivity and rapidity of this new assay speak to its potential clinical applicability in the diagnosis of enterovirus infections. ProCite Record Number: 5910Journal Short Form workform??Zhang, H. S. F. Chao L. H. Ping K. Grace, B. Clarke S. M. Lemon1995An infectious cDNA clone of a cytopathic hepatitis A virus: genomic regions associated with rapid replication and cytopathic effect686-697Virology2122ORapidly replicating, cytopathic (rr/cpe+) variants of hepatitis A virus (HAV) isolated from persistently infected BS-C-1 cells have numerous mutations from cell culture-adapted rr/cpe- HAV. To determine which mutations in one rr/cpe+ virus, HM175/18f, determine enhanced replication in BS-C-1 cells, a series of chimeric viruses was rescued from infectious cDNAs in which HM175/18f genomic segments were placed within the background of a related rr/cpe- virus, HAV/7. Chimeric viruses containing the P2 region of HM175/18f produced replication foci in BS-C-1 cells that were larger than HAV/7, but not as large as HM175/18f virus. Enhanced viral replication required mutations in both 2B and 2C proteins, suggesting that these proteins remain closely associated during replication. Mutations in 5' nontranslated RNA (5'NTR) or P3 proteins had no independent effect, but acted cooperatively with mutations in P2 proteins to enhance replication and render the virus capable of conventional plaque formation. Cytopathic effects correlated with viral replication capacity and were not the result of any single mutation. Full expression of the rr/cpe+ phenotype required mutations within the 5'NTR, P2, and P3 segments. These results suggest novel interactions between the 5'NTR and P2 proteins during HAV replication and provide useful new infectious cDNA clones.ProCite Record Number: 5910Journal Short Form workform?Bouchriti, N S. M. Goyal1993[Methods for the concentration and detection of human enteric viruses in shellfish: a review105-114Microbiologica161?(Original) Shellfish, hepatitis, enteric viruses, public healthz(Summary) Shellfish, including oysters, mussels, and clams, are filter feeding bivalve mollusks and can accumulate human pathogens at levels higher than those in their surrounding waters. Outbreaks of shellfish-borne enteric viral diseases have been reported worldwide. To determine the public health safety of shellfish, methods are available for the direct detection of human enteric viruses in shellfish tissues. Potential problems with these methods include (i) toxicity of the final sample to cell cultures used for viral assay, and (ii) a large sample volume that cannot be conveniently assayed. To overcome these problems, several methods for the concentration and detection of enteric viruses in shellfish tissues have been developed and utilized. A review of these methods indicates that none of them is universally accepted because no single method is equally effective for shellfish obtained from different geographical locations and under all conditions. It is suggested, therefore, that a proposed method should first be tested under experimental conditions, utilizing virus-spiked shellfish, before using it under field conditions. ProCite Record Number: 5910Journal Short Form workform?,Lewis, D. C. N. F. Lightfoot J. V. S. Pether1988iSolid-phase immune electron microscopy with human immunoglobulin M for serotyping of Norwalk-like viruses938-942 Journal of Clinical Microbiology265A solid-phase immune electron microscopy method that uses protein A, goat anti-human immunoglobulin M (IgM), and human serum is described. Evaluation of the method with different immunoglobulin fractions showed that human IgM constituted the major virus capture antibody. The method appeared to distinguish between two Norwalk-like virus serotypes and demonstrated specific IgM responses to these serotypes in infected individuals. Further work is being carried out to define the relationship of these two serotypes to the previously described Norwalk agent (A. Z. Kapikian, R. G. Wyatt, R. Dolin, T. S. Thornhill, A. R. Kalica, and R. M. Chanock, J. Virol. 10:1075-1081, 1972), and four subsequent hospital outbreaks are being studied. ProCite Record Number: 5920Journal Short Form workformG?Scheid, A. P. W. Choppin1976fProtease activation mutants of sendai virus. Activation of biological properties by specific proteases265-277Virology691TA new class of Sendai virus mutants (pa mutants) is described that exhibit altered specificities with respect to protease activation of infectivity and altered host range. Sendai virus requires proteolytic cleavage of a virion glycoprotein (F0 to F) in order to be infective. Wild-type virus can be activated in vitro by treatment with trypsin, but not chymotrypsin or elastase, or in vitro by addition of trypsin to cells, e.g., MDBK, which lack activating protease. Mutants have been isolated that are activated by chymotrypsin (pa-c mutants) or elastase (pa-e mutants). Some mutants are no longer activated by trypsin, and these mutants have lost the ability to undergo multiple-cycle replication in the embryonated chick egg unless chymotrypsin or elastase is added to the allantoic fluid. The same proteases that are required for activation of infectivity of the mutants also activate hemolysis. These findings with pa mutants support the pervious conclusion based on results with wild type virus, that a host-dependent cleaveage of the F0 protein is required for the infectivity of Sendai virus and for activation of hemolyzing and cell-fusing activities. The results obtained indicate that the host range and tissue tropsim of Sendai virus are determined at least in part by the availibility of the apporiate protease required for activation of infectivity.ProCite Record Number: 5920Journal Short Form workform?Rehn, Y. L. Schwartzbrod19935Virucidal activity of an activated sludge supernatant481-489;International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine1945-6The virucidal activity of the activated sludge aqueous phase was studied from the time of initial inoculation with a poliovirus type 1 suspension and for durations of three and nine days. The mixtures were incubated in presence of a nutritive medium at 26 degrees C and samples were drawn at regular intervals of time for viral titration. The activated sludge supernatant (ASS) caused an important decrease of the titer of the poliovirus type 1 suspension especially after nine days of incubation. There was an average reduction of the viral titer of 79% after three days and 97% after nine days. When incubating the ASS with a nutritive medium before inoculating it, the viral decrease was much greater than when incubating without nutritive medium. When sterilizing the ASS before incubation and then inoculating it, no significant virucidal activity was observed (0% to 6%). Furthermore, when the ASS was subjected to a sterilization by filtration after incubation and was then inoculated, there existed a lower but not negligible viral inactivation (53% to 64%). The virucidal activity potentiality of the ASS is therefore due to microorganisms acting both directly as a support for viral particles adsorption and indirectly via the synthesis of substances with virucidal activity. When freezing and thawing the incubated ASS, and then sterilizing it by filtration before inoculation, the viral decrease reached 87% to 94%. This proves that the virucidal substances are only partly excreted by the microorganisms. ProCite Record Number: 5920Journal Article workform?Chenal, V. R. Griffais1994Chemiluminescent and colorimetric detection of a fluorescein-labelled probe and a digoxigenin-labelled probe after a single hybridization step401-407Molecular and Cellular Probes85V(Original) Non-radioactive probes, single hybridization step, digoxigenin, fluorescein@The objective of the simple and fast method we describe is the simultaneous hybridization of two non-radioactive probes and their detection from the same blot, using two different systems. These two probes are synthesized by PCR: one is labelled with fluorescein and the other with digoxigenin. The former is detected by chemiluminescence and the latter by colorimetry. We applied this rapid and simple method to the specific detection of multiplex polymerase chain reaction products. We used the human herpes simplex virus HSV1 and HSV2 PCR models studied in our laboratory. ProCite Record Number: 5920Journal Short Form workform?$Lue-Hing, C. D. R. Zenz S. J. Sedita1982XEnvironmental impact of the microbial aerosol emissions from wastewater treatment plants289-309Water Science and Technology14_(Original) Wastewater treatment plants, microbial aerosols, public health, viruses, suppressionnThe literature on microbial emissions from wastewater treatment plants is reviewed and a major study of microbial aerosol emissions from such a plant is described and discussed. The literature was found to be repleted with studies which showed that microbial aerosols are emitted from wastewater treatment plants but rapid die-away was shown once the aerosols reach the ambient air. Epidemiological studies of wastewater treatment plant workers and of communities nearby such plants gave overwhelming evidence to show that wastewater treatment plants do not affect the health of the local populace nor the plant workres themselves. The paper describes a major study of the microbial aerosol emissions of a wastewater treatment plant operated by the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago. In this study, it was found that aerosols containing microorganisms were emitted from the aeration tank surface at rates of 208 to 386 standard plate counts per cubic meter of air at a distance of 0.3 m above the surface. However, it was found that there was rapid die-away of microbial emission with distance from the aeration tanks both horizontally and vertically. It was concluded, based upon the literature review and the major study described, that microbial aerosol emissions from wastewater treatment plants were not a significant factor in the health of the surrounding populace.ProCite Record Number: 5930Journal Short Form workform|?5Shipman, C. Jr. S. H. Smith R. H. Carlson J. C. Drach1976Antiviral activity of arabinosyladenine and arabinosylhypoxanthine in herpes simplex virus-infected KB cells: selective inhibition of viral deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in synchronized suspension cultures120-127%Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy91The drug 9-ß-D-arabinofuranosyladenine (ara-A) significantly suppressed the formation of herpes simplex virus type 1-induced syncytia in BHK-21/4 cells at concertrations as low as 0.1 µg/ml. Optimal activity was noted when the drug was added before initiation of viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis (3.5 h postinfection). The deaminated derivative of ara-A, 9-ß-D-arabinofuranosylhypoxanthine (ara-H), was at least 10 times less effective in suppressing the development of herpes simplex virus-induced syncytia. The replication of herpes simplex virus was measured by assaying fluids and cells from infected drug-treated cultures by using a plaque production technique. Ara-A at drug levels of >10 <32 µg/ml completely blocked the replication of infectious virus particles. Ara-H was less effective than ara-A in reducing the replication of virions. Rates of host and viral DNA synthesis were monitored by pulse labeling herpes simplex virus-infected synchronized KB cells with [3H]thymidine and subsequently separating viral from celluar DNA in CsCl density gradients. During synthetic (S) phase, ara-A or ara-H at concerntrations ranging from 3.2 to 32 µg/ml selectively inhibited viral DNA synthesis. At 3.2 µg of ara-A per ml, viral DNA synthesis was reduced 74% although total cellular DNA systhesis was unaffected. Increasing concerntrations of ara-A produced increasing temporal delays in the maximal rate of host DNA synthesis. This time shift was not observed in cells treated with ara-H.ProCite Record Number: 5930Journal Short Form workform?bCoimbra Jr, C. E. A. R. V. Santos C. F. Y. Yoshida, M. L. Baptista N. M. Flowers A. C. F. Do Valle1996Hepatitis B epidemilogy and cultural practices in Amerindian populations of Amoazonia: the trupí-mondé and the xavánte from Brazil 1735-1743Social Science & Medicine4212B(Original) Hepatitis B, epidemiology, cultural practices, AmazoniaHepatitis B infection and disease are highly endemic in South America. Prevalences of positivity are particularly high in Amazonia, and among Amerindian peoples in particular. This paper reports the results of a seroepidemiological survey for hepatitis B virus (HBV) carried out among four Amerindian populations from the Brazilian Amazon region: Gaviào, Suruí, Zoró and Xavánte. Rates of positivity to HBV serological markers (HBsAg, anti-HBs and or anti-HBc) are very high for the four groups, ranging from 62.8 to 95.7%. It is argued that the high rates of positivity in the Amerindian groups dealt with in this study,as well as for other Amonzonian populations, are related to a complex of cultural practices which enhance the likehood of HBV transmission (Bloodletting, sarification, tattooing and orally processed food, among others). The authors suggest that., due to unique patterns of interaction between sociocultural and environmental factors, HBV infection assumes a spefic profiler in native Amozonian societies. ProCite Record Number: 5930Journal Short Form workform~?+Nestor, V. I. L. Lazar D. Sovrea N. Ionescu1987GThe viral pollution of surface waters by domestic waste water discharge419-427Archive of Hydrobiol. Suppl.683-4The virological investigation of several surface waters from Roumania (inland rivers Somes, Mures, Arges and the Danube River) carried out during 1962-1980 period, showed a viral pollution of these waters with enteroviruses - vaccine strains of polioviruses, Coxsackie and echoviruses - in variable proportion, up to 50% (13, 17 and 18% on average) for the inland river samples and up to 41.7% (15% on average) for the Danube river water samples Fig. 1, 2, Table 2). in comparison with the different streams from other countries, the pollution of the investigated rivers was relatively low, owing to the treatment - even partial - of the domestic waste waters prior to their discharge into the stream. Besides, the ample hydrotechnical construction built during the last period along the main rivers, including the Danube, may contribute to a great extent to the self-purification of these waters.ProCite Record Number: 5940Journal Short Form workform?Lvan Cuyck-Gandre, H. D. Gratier M. F. Burckhart J. M. Crance L. Schwartzbrod1994)Detection of hepatitis A virus in oysters185-1934International Journal of Food Science and Technology29b(Original) Concerntration, digoxigenin-labelled probe, extraction, picornavirus, safety, shellfish(Summary) A digoxigenin-labelled RNA probe with a sensitivity of 800 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 ) was used to detect Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) in oysters. We studied the influence of extraction methodology on riboprobe detection. Oyster samples obtained by four methods of extraction and extraction-concerntraton were spiked with HAV (CF53 strain). There was no correlation between protein concerntration and turbidity of samples, and anti-dioxigenin antibodies showed a non spefic reaction. Background noise was independent of protein concerntration and disappeared when HAV RNA isolation by phenol/chloroform extraction was introduced, but HAV RNA could not be detected by this technique. In the presence of Acid Guanidinium Thiocyanate (AGT), RNA from HAV suspension was detected following phenolic extraction with a detection threshold of 8.104 TCID50 of spotted virus. HAV detection in oyster extract by a digoxigenin-labelled riboprobe appeared useful in shellfish virology, at least for a primary screening of samples.ProCite Record Number: 5940Journal Short Form workform?0Nestor, I. L. costin-Lazår D. Sovrea N. Ionescu19845Detection of enteroviruses in seawater and beach sand527-534%Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [B]1785-6In the years from 1975 to 1978 investigations were carried out to detect enteroviruses in the sea-water and in the sand of the beaches of the Rumanian Black Sea coast, in zones with and without waste water discharge. The quantities of enteroviruses found in the seawater and in the sand of the beaches were lower than those verified in other countries. For the identification of viruses we used two concentration methods simultaneously (polyelectrolyte PE60 Monsanto USA and brewer's yeast cells) as well as two methods of isolation (in cell cultures and with newborn mice). The incidence of enteroviruses depended on the season, with no viruses present in the sea-water and in the sand of the beaches during the periods considered to be outside the holidaying season. The discharge of purified sewage into the sea was not attended by considerable viral contamination of the sea-water and of the beaches. ProCite Record Number: 5950Journal Short Form workform?0Dalton, C. B. A. Haddix R. E. Hoffman E. E. Mast1996@The cost of a food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A in Denver, Colo 1013-1016Archive of Internal Medicine1565!BACKGROUND: In 1992, a food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a catering facility in Denver, Colo, resulted in 43 secondary cases of hepatitis A and the potential exposure of approximately 5000 patrons. OBJECTIVES: To assess (1) disease control costs, including state and local health department personnel costs, provision and administration of immune globulin, and cost of extra hepatitis A serologic tests performed; (2) business losses; and (3) cost of the cases' illnesses. METHODS: Cost data were collected from hospitals, health maintenance organizations, health departments, laboratories, the caterer's insurance company, and the catering facility involved in the outbreak. RESULTS: The total costs assessed in the outbreak from a societal perspective were $809,706. Disease control costs were $689,314, which included $450,397 for 16,293 immune globulin injections and $105,699 for 2777 hours of health department personnel time. The cases' medical costs were $46,064, or 7% of the disease control costs. CONCLUSIONS: The cases' medical costs and productivity losses were only a minor component of the total cost of this outbreak. The high cost of food-borne outbreaks should be taken into account in economic analyses of the vaccination of food handlers with inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. ProCite Record Number: 5950Journal Short Form workform?)Nestor, I. L. Lazâr N. Ionescu D. Sovrea1989MViral contamination of some drinking waters in Romania: a twenty years survey397-408<Journal of Hygiene Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology334h(Original) Drinking water, viral contamination coxsackie virus A and B, poliovirus, adenovirus detectionA synthesis is made on the 20 years virological survey of the drinking water from some towns of Romania. The sampling of the water was made by the gauze-pad method. The virus concentration method by adsorption-elution with the yeast cells was applied concomitantly, at first with the PE60 method, then, during the last years, either with aluminum hydroxide or with the polymer PV methods, and the concentrates were inoculated both into suckling mice and into cell cultures. Various types of coxsackievirus A and B, poliovirus and adenovirus were detected. The proportions of positive samples varied between 0 and 25% annually, in diverse towns, the mean proportion being 2.1%. These proportions are relative low, although two concentrating and two detecting methods were applied concomitantly. ProCite Record Number: 5960Journal Short Form workform?_De Leon, R. S. M. Matsui R. S. Baric J. E. Herrmann N. R. Blacklow H. B. Greenberg M. D. Sobsey1992Detection of Norwalk virus in stool specimens by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and nonradioactive oligoprobes 3151-3157 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3012~A reverse transcriptase (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-oligoprobe (OP), or RT-PCR-OP, method was developed for the detection of the Norwalk virus, which causes acute, epidemic gastroenteritis, in stool specimens. The Norwalk virus genome regions encoding the following two proteins were amplified by RT-PCR: the RNA polymerase (260-bp product) and a putative immunogenic protein (224-bp product). The resulting DNA fragments (amplicons) were hybridized to a digoxigenin-labeled internal OP specific to each amplicon. The detection limit of Norwalk virus, as determined by the endpoint of RT-PCR amplification for serially diluted, positive stool specimens, was similar to the actual virion titer as estimated by electron microscopy and at least 100-fold greater than the titer determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The RT-PCR-OP assay was specific for Norwalk virus and negative for other enteric viruses, including human and animal caliciviruses, hepatitis E virus, Snow Mountain agent, astroviruses, 16 human enteroviruses, and 5 human rotaviruses. Components of fecal specimens that interfere with RT-PCR were removed successfully by Sephadex G-200 gel chromatography. Of 20 stool specimens from human volunteers that were positive for Norwalk virus by RIA, a specific RT-PCR-OP result was obtained in 95% (19 of 20) of the samples by using the immunogenic protein primers and 75% (15 of 20) by using the polymerase primers. Twenty-six stool specimens from asymptomatic children and adults were negative by the Norwalk virus RT-PCR-OP. RT-PCR-OP detected Norwalk virus in the 4 of 21 coded fecal specimens that were also positive by enzyme immunoassay. ProCite Record Number: 5960Journal Short Form workform?(Nestor, I. L. Lazar D. Sovrea N. Ionescu19838Viral pollution of some artificial reservoirs in Romania327-333%Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [B]1773-4Five reservoirs were investigated for the presence of enteroviruses by using simultaneously two methods for concentration (PE60 and yeast cells) and two techniques for isolation (inoculation into suckling mice and into cell cultures). The average rate of virus positive samples was lower in reservoir water than in the water of the adjoined rivers. The paper discusses the possibilities of viral self-purification in reservoir water and the advantages of its use for drinking purposes after adequate treatment. ProCite Record Number: 5970Journal Short Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver19952Antiviral effects of bacteria isolated from manure43-45 Microb. Ecol.301*Mixed human, inactivation, viruses, wastesThe objectives of this study were to determine the role of microbial activity in inactivation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and to learn how the virus is inactivated. Of 31 bacterial strains isolated from animal manure, 10 efficiently inactivated HAV in fluid thioglycollate medium, with D-10 values (time, in days, required for a 90% reduction of virus titer) of less than or equal to 10 at 30 degrees C. The D-10 value of the control suspension without bacteria was 35.1. Most of the 10 strains raised the pH of the medium during growth; comparisons suggested that alkalinity was not a principal antiviral property of these cultures. Cell-free filtrates of nine of these strains caused net 90% inactivation of HAV within 6 days at 37 degrees C; the other did not. The inactivation capacity of four of the nine culture filtrates was significantly reduced by incubation with selected protease inhibitors before the virus was added. These protease inhibitors did not affect the activities of the other five culture filtrates. Fractions prepared by ultrafiltration (nominal molecular weights <1,000) from two of these cultures inactivated HAV, suggesting that their mode of action was not enzymatic.ProCite Record Number: 5970Journal Short Form workform2?(Newman, J. F. E. D. J. Rowlands F. Brown1973?A physico-chemical sub-grouping of the mammalian picornaviruses171-180Journal of General Virology182C(Summary) Several of the physico-chemical properties of representative members of the Picornaviridae family have been examined . On the basis of their buoyant density in caesium chloride, stability at pH 3 to 7 and the base composition of the virus RNA, a division of this family of viruses into six subgroups is suggested.ProCite Record Number: 5980Journal Short Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1995KPersistence of inoculated hepatitis A virus in mixed human and human wastes87-91Appl. Environ. Microbiol.611-Enteric viruses, inactivation, survival, soilThe persistence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) was determined both in mixtures of septic tank effluent (STE) with dairy cattle manure slurry (DCMS) and in mixtures of STE with swine manure slurry (SMS). HAV was consistently inactivated more rapidly in the two types of mixed wastes than in STE alone or in the control Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). At 5 degrees C, the D values (time, in days, for a 90% reduction of virus titer) were 34.6 for the mixed STE and DCMS, 48.5 for the mixed STE and SMS, 58.5 for STE, and 217.4 for the Dulbecco's PBS control, At 22 degrees C, the D values were 23.0, 17.1, 35.1, and 90.1 for the four suspension media, respectively. A comparison of HAV inactivation in mixed wastes subjected to different treatments at the same pH and temperatures showed that the virus inactivation in the mixed wastes was related, at least in part, to microbial activity. In mixed STE and DCMS, the D values at 25 degrees C were 8.3 for raw mixed wastes, 15.1 for autoclaved mixed wastes, and 9.6 for bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed wastes; D values at 37 degrees C were 6.8, 10.1, and 7.0 for these three suspension media, respectively. In mixed STE and SMS, the D values at 25 degrees C were 8.1 for raw mixed wastes, 14.3 for autoclaved mixed wastes, and 9.1 for bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed wastes; the D values at 37 degrees C were 6.8, 9.4, and 6.9 for the three suspensions, respectively.ProCite Record Number: 5980Journal Short Form workform?De Sena, J. D. L. Jarvis1981:Modification of the poliovirus capsid by ultraviolet light 1185-1193 Canadian Journal of Microbiology2711Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation of type I poliovirus resulted in a modified (M) particle that had lost infectivity, lacked ability to adsorb to HeLa cells, lacked VP4, and reduced in S value. Additional irradiation resulted in the loss of VP2, further reduction in S value, and permeability of the capsid to RNAse, This particle (C) as well as M contain the genome. Acid pH (5.5-65) and sulfhydryl-reducing substances (dithiothreitol. reduced glutathione, and L-cysteine) inhibited UV-induced modification of the capsid. UV irradiation at alkaline pH (7.5-8.5) resulted in more extensive modification of the capsid than irradiation at neutral pH. Ionic compounds were found to inhibit the modifying reaction. ProCite Record Number: 5990Journal Short Form workformy? Cliver, D. O.1975(Virus association with wastewater solids215-223Environmental Letters103The solids produced at an urban wastewater treatment plant, tested semiquantitatively, almost all contained human intestinal viruses. Reoviruses and five or more types of enteroviruses were present. Sludge, digested anaerobically at 30 degrees-32 degrees C, and grit contained measurable levels of viruses. Until reliable means of inactivating the viruses have been developed and implemented, great care should be taken in disposing of these solids. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workforml?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1990'Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1986-19881-13%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report391From 1986 to 1988, 24 states and Puerto Rico reported 50 outbreaks of illness due to water that people intended to drink, affecting 25,846 persons. The protozoal parasite Giardia lamblia was the agent most commonly implicated in outbreaks, as it has been for the last 10 years; many of these outbreaks were associated with ingestion of chlorinated but unfiltered surface water. Shigella sonnei was the most commonly implicated bacterial pathogen; in outbreaks caused by this pathogen, water supplies were found to be contaminated with human waste. Cryptosporidium contamination of a chlorinated, filtered public water supply caused the largest outbreak during this period, affecting an estimated 13,000 persons. A large multistate outbreak caused by commercially produced ice made from contaminated well water caused illness with Norwalk-like virus among an estimated 5,000 persons. The first reported outbreak of chronic diarrhea of unknown cause associated with drinking untreated well water occurred in 1987. Twenty-six outbreaks due to recreational water use were also reported, including outbreaks of Pseudomonas dermatitis associated with the use of hot tubs or whirlpools, and swimming-associated shigellosis, giardiasis, and viral illness. Although the total number of reported water-related outbreaks has been declining in recent years, the few large outbreaks due to Cryptosporidium, Norwalk-like agent, Shigella sonnei, and Giardia lamblia caused more cases of illness in 1987 than have been reported to the Water-Related Disease Outbreak Surveillance System for any other year since CDC and the Environmental Protection Agency began tabulating these data in 1971. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform? Todd, E. C. D1989JCosts of acute bacterial foodborne disease in Canada and the United States313-326*International Journal of Food Microbiology94ReviewBacterial foodborne disease is increasing in industrialized as well as developing countries. For Canada and the United States many millions of cases are believed to occur each year, based on extrapolations of survey data, human enteric isolations and reported foodborne disease cases. The economic impact of such a large number is probably in billions of dollars but the precise figure is difficult to calculate. Medical costs and lost income are easier to determine than losses to food companies, legal awards and settlements, value of lost leisure time, pain, grief, suffering and death. The evaluation of costs at the national level for Canada and the United States based on all available costs for 61 incidents showed that company losses and legal action are much higher than medical/hospitalization expenses, lost income or investigational costs. It was reckoned that on an annual basis an estimated 1 million cases of acute bacterial foodborne illness in Canada cost nearly $1.1 billion and 5.5 million cases in the United States cost nearly $7 billion. The value of deaths was a major contributor to the overall costs especially for diseases like listeriosis, salmonellosis, Vibrio infections, and haemorrhagic colitis. Salmonellosis is the economically most important disease because it affects all parts of the food system, unlike typhoid fever and botulism, which are largely controlled by public health authorities and the food industry. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform?p Cliver, D.O.1967HDetection of enteric viruses by concentration with polyethylene glycol. 109–120,Transmission of viruses by the water route. Berg, G.New York Interscience?qCliver, D. O. 1973,Apparatus for changing tissue culture media. 224–226+Tissue culture: methods and applications. 'Kruse, P. F. Jr. Patterson, M. K. Jr. New YorkAcademic Press?r$Kostenbader, K. D. Jr. Cliver, D.O.19774Quest for viruses associated with our food supply. 1253– 1257, 1268. J. Food Sci.425G?sKlingborg, D. Cliver, D.2000'Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). 198–2043The Wiley Encyclopedia of Food Science & TechnologyFrancis, F. J.New YorkJohn Wiley & Sons2d?t&Hajmeer, M. Cliver, D. O. Provost, R. 2003ZSpinal cord tissue detection in comminuted beef: Comparison of two immunological methods. 757–763 Meat Sci.65C|7u,Wilesmith, J. W. Ryan, J. B. Atkinson, M. J.1991GBovine spongiform encephalopathy: epidemiological studies on the origin199-203Vet Rec1289Age Factors Animals Brain Diseases/epidemiology/etiology/*veterinary Cattle Cattle Diseases/*epidemiology/etiology Fats/*analysis Meat/*analysis Minerals/*analysis Slow Virus Diseases/epidemiology/etiology/*veterinaryMar 2mThe results of further epidemiological studies of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) support the previous findings that the onset of exposure of the cattle population to a scrapie-like agent, sufficient to result in clinical disease, occurred in 1981/82. The onset of this exposure was related to the cessation, in all but two rendering plants, of the hydrocarbon solvent extraction of fat from meat and bone meal. A further possible explanation, related to the geographical variation in the reprocessing of greaves to produce meat and bone meal, was identified for the geographical variation in the incidence of BSE.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1823120hWilesmith, J W Ryan, J B Atkinson, M J England The Veterinary record Vet Rec. 1991 Mar 2;128(9):199-203.0042-4900 (Print)1823120MEpidemiology Unit, Central Veterinary Laboratory, New Haw, Weybridge, Surrey.enga?*Emerson, S. U. S. A. Tsarev R. H. Purcell 1991^Biological and molecular comparisons of human (HM-175) and simian (AGM-27) hepatitis A viruses S144-S145Journal of Hepatology134ReviewLComparisons of HM-175, the prototype human strain of hepatitis A virus, and AGM-27, a simian isolate, indicate that the two HAV viruses differ substantially in sequence and in biological characteristics. The extent of the differences suggests that hepatitis A viruses have a greater potential for diversity than previously assumed. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform?0Lemon, S. M. L. Whetter K. H. Chang E. A. Brown 1992CWhy do human hepatitis viruses replicate so poorly in cell cultures455-459FEMS Microbiology Letters 791-3The five viruses which classically cause hepatitis in man represent diverse families of viruses and share in common only a striking hepatotropism and substantial restrictions to replication in conventional cell cultures. Hepatitis A virus is unique among these viruses in that it is amenable to propagation in cell culture, but replication of this virus is much slower and less efficient than replication of other picornaviruses. This probably reflects less efficient cap-independent viral translation, as well as restrictions at other points in the replication cycle. We speculate that the significantly restricted replication of hepatitis viruses in cell culture reflects evolutionary forces controlling their transmission and propagation through human populations. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform?lLemon, S. M. W. Barclay M. Ferguson P. Murphy L. Jing K. Burke D. Wood K. Katrak D. Sangar P. D. Minor et al1992Immunogenicity and antigenicity of chimeric picornaviruses which express hepatitis A virus (HAV) peptide sequences: evidence for a neutralization domain near the amino terminus of VP1 of HAV285-295Virology1881 We evaluated the antigenic characteristics of chimeric picornaviruses created by inserting peptide sequences from hepatitis A virus (HAV) capsid proteins into the B-C loop of VP1 of Sabin strain type 1 poliovirus (PV-1). Fifteen viable chimeras were generated. Each retained the ability to be neutralized by polyclonal PV-1 antisera. Two chimeras (H15 and H2) stimulated production of low levels of HAV neutralizing antibodies in immunized rabbits or mice, although in both cases only a small fraction of immunized animals produced this response. The H15 chimera, which contains residues 13-24 of HAV VP1, elicited HAV neutralizing antibodies in three of nine rabbits and at least one of seven immunized mice. These results indicate that a neutralization domain exists in this region of VP1. However, human sera with high titers of antibodies to HAV failed to neutralize or immunoprecipitate this chimera, suggesting the absence of a significant antibody response to this neutralization domain following natural infection. Sera from rabbits immunized with H15 that did not develop HAV neutralizing antibodies contained antibodies reactive with the HAV peptide segment expressed by the H15 virus, indicating substantial differences in the specificities of antibodies elicited by this peptide segment among individual immunized rabbits. The H15 peptide insert was an effective antigen, as indicated by a high level of sensitivity of the H15 chimera to neutralization by a related anti-peptide antibody which was itself devoid of HAV neutralizing activity. One of 16 rabbits immunized with the H2 chimera (residues 101-108 of HAV VP1) developed HAV neutralizing antibodies, confirming both the presence and the highly conformational nature of a neutralization antigenic site involving these residues of HAV. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workformSt7bSalo, R. J. Cliver, D. O.1978CInactivation of enteroviruses by ascorbic acid and sodium bisulfite68-75Appl Environ Microbiol361Ascorbic Acid/*pharmacology Echovirus 9/*drug effects/metabolism Enterovirus/*drug effects/metabolism Enterovirus B, Human/*drug effects Hemagglutinins, Viral Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Poliovirus/*drug effects/metabolism RNA, Viral/metabolism Sulfites/*pharmacology TemperatureJulPoliovirus type 1, coxsackievirus type A9, and echovirus type 7 were inactivated by sodium bisulfite and ascorbic acid. Inactivation rates depended upon concentration, temperature, and pH. RNA infectivity was lost during inactivation; the capsid was also altered by these inactivating agents, as determined by enzyme sensit?Oragui, J. I. D. D. Mara1989Simple method for the detoxification of wastewater ultrafiltration concentrates for rotavirus assay by indirect immunofluorescence401-405&Applied and Environmental Microbiology552A simple method for the detoxification of ultrafiltration concentrates of wastewaters for rotavirus assay by the indirect immunofluorescence technique has been developed. Polyacrylamide (Bio-Gel) or dextran (Sephadex G50) beads were mixed with concentrates (0.5 g/10 ml, wt/vol) of wastewaters seeded with simian rotavirus SA11 and allowed to stand for 2 h. The supernatant was decontaminated with antibiotics and then assayed for rotaviruses. Concentrates from raw sewage and treated effluents seeded with SA11 were used to infect MA104 or LLC MK2 cell lines. The concentrates, particularly those from raw sewage and anaerobic waste stabilization ponds, were very toxic to the tissue culture cells. These toxic effects were determined by the detachment and subsequent loss of cells after incubation with concentrates and assay medium for 24 h. They were either completely eliminated or were reduced by greater than 80% after treatment with beads. ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workformZ? Hurst, C. J.1988REffect of environmental variables on enteric virus survival in surface freshwaters473-476Water Science and Technology2011-12oEnteric viruses are often found to be present in surface freshwaters. This contamination can arise from several types of contributing sources. Included among these are direct personal contribution, deliberate discharge of wastewaters, overland runoff from both point and non-point sites, and seepage of underground flows. Once viruses reach surface waters they pose a public health hazard to persons who may be exposed via deliberate ingestion, or through either accidental ingestion or contamination of facial mucosal surfaces during bathing and recreational activities. Concern regarding the human health aspects of viral pollution of surface freshwaters has led to several studies relative to this topic. However, most of these studies have been limited to only one, or at most a very few, viral serotypes, and have considered a very limited number of environmental variables.ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform?Dix, A. B. L. Jaykus1998hVirion concentration method for the detection of human enteric viruses in extracts of hard-shelled clams458-465Journal of Food Protection614A method to extract and concentrate intact human enteric viruses from oyster extracts for detection using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was applied to hard-shelled clams (mercenaria mercenaria). Fifty-gram clam samples were processed by an adsorption-elution-precipitation method and then seeded with 10(1) to 10(5) PFU to poliovirus 1 (PV1) and/or hepatitis A virus (HAV). Seeded viruses in extracts were purified by fluorocarbon (Freon) extraction and concentrated by polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation and elution. Efficiency of virion recovery from PEG precipitates was dependent upon PEG concentration and elution buffer volume, with optimized variable yielding recoveries as high as 99% for PV1 and 45% for HAV, as evaluated by cell culture infectivity assay. To further concentrate viruses, remove inhibitors, and reduce sample volumes, the protein-precipitating agent Pro-Cipitate was used in an adsorption-elution-precipitation scheme. The final concentrate was of low volume (< 1 ml) and directly compatible with viral genomic amplification using RT-PCR. When extracts from 50-g clam samples were seeded and processed by the combined concentration and purification scheme, direct RT-PCR detection of viral genomic RNA was possible at initial inoculum levels of 10(3) PFU for PV1 and HAV. Corresponding virus recoveries based on cell culture infectivity were 7 to 50% and 0.3 to 8% for pV1 and HAV, respectively, when extracts of clams were artificially contaminated with the Norwalk virus, direct detection of virion RNA using RT-PCR and subsequent oligoprobe hybridization was possible at levels as low as 450 RT-PCR amplifiable units of the Norwalk virus per extract of 50-g clam sample.ProCite Record Number: 6000Journal Short Form workform? Cliver, D. O.1973'Cheddar cheese as a vehicle for viruses 1329-1331Journal of Dairy Science561ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform^?)Hurst, C. J. W. H. Benton K. A. McClellan1988cSuppression of viral replication by guanidine: a comparison of human adenoviruses and enteroviruses1-11Journal of Virological Methods221JA comparison was made between the relative sensitivities of laboratory strain human adenoviruses and enteroviruses, and recently isolated human enteroviruses, to the presence of guanidine hydrochloride in cell culture media. The concentration of guanidine hydrochloride used was 100 micrograms per ml. Representatives of all six human Adenovirus subgenera were unaffected in their replication at this concentration of guanidine. The different human Enterovirus types examined varied in their sensitivity, with suppression ranging from less than 1 to 3 log10 units for laboratory strains, and from 2 to 7 log10 units for recently isolated viruses. The findings suggest a novel role for antiviral drugs; serving as an adjunct in facilitating selective isolation of specific virus groups which may be present as part of mixed viral populations. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?JEmerson, S. U. M. Lewis S. Govindarajan M. Shapiro T. Moskal R. H. Purcell1992cDNA clone of hepatitis A virus encoding a virulent virus: induction of viral hepatitis by direct nucleic acid transfection of marmosets 6649-6654Journal of Virology6611hDirect inoculation of marmoset livers with an in vitro transcription mixture containing cDNA and full-length genomic RNA transcripts of hepatitis A virus resulted in acute viral hepatitis. Elevations in serum levels of liver enzymes were correlated with appearance of antibody to hepatitis A virus. Genomes of infectious hepatitis A virus isolated from the feces of transfected marmosets contained the same mutation as the cDNA template used for transfection. Liver biopsies confirmed that the virus encoded by the cDNA clone induced histopathological changes equivalent to those caused by virulent wild-type virus. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workformM?:Villarejos, V. M. J. Serra K. Anderson-Visona J. W. Mosley1982)Hepatitis A virus infection in households577-586 American Journal of Epidemiology1154\The behavior of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection among 980 members of 230 families in two rural districts of Costa Rica was studied prospectively from the recognition of the index case. The initial prevalence of detectable antibody (anti-HAV) ranged from 26.2% in children to 71.4% in adults. The ratio of index to household-associated infections was significantly higher among children than among adolescents and adults, indicating that children were most often responsible for the HAV introduction. The rates of household-associated cases among susceptible contacts were 70-83%; the final prevalences of anti-HAV were 90-95%. Neither index showed significant differences related to age. The ratio of clinical to silent infections in household-associated cases was uniformly 1.8:1 among children and adolescents; among adults, almost all associated infections were silent. Beginning with the 5-9-year age group, however, an immunoglobulin M response was absent in a progressively larger proportion of inapparent infections, strongly suggesting restimulation of specific immunoglobulin G antibodies by reinfection. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?Green, M. S. S. Tsur R. Slepon 1992Sociodemographic factors and the declining prevalence of anti-hepatitis A antibodies in young adults in Israel: implications for the new hepatitis A vaccines136-141%International Journal of Epidemiology211lIn order to examine changes in the epidemiology of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection in Israel during the past decade, a sero-epidemiological study was carried out in 1989 in a random sample of 1153 members of the permanent army, aged 21-30 years. Of the males 59.2%, and 54.3% of the females were anti-HAV antibody positive (p = 0.22). At all ages, the highest prevalence was in those of North African origin, followed by those of Asian, native Israeli and Western origin. There was a marked decline in the prevalence of antibodies in later birth cohorts, (from 74.4% in those born in 1959-1960, to 47.8% in those born in 1967-1968). Age, ethnic origin, number of siblings, more than two younger siblings and smoking were independently significantly associated with anti-HAV antibodies. Despite an overall decline in family size in later birth cohorts, ethnic differences remain prominent. These findings suggest that when the new active hepatitis A vaccines become available, their use in small children should dramatically reduce the incidence of diseases in highly endemic areas by limiting intrafamilial spread of the disease. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?%Metcalf, T. G. E. Moulton D. Eckerson1980PImproved method and test strategy for recovery of enteric viruses from shellfish141-152&Applied and Environmental Microbiology391An improved recovery method and testing strategy were devised for recovery of low numbers of enteric viruses from each of three commercially important shellfish species. Effective recovery of virus depended as much upon details of the test strategy adopted for use of the improved method with each species as on the method itself. The most important test details involved sample composition, pool size, and method of use of cell cultures. Recovery sensitivity measured permitted detection of 25 to 3 plaque-forming units of enteroviruses and 100 to 27 plaque-forming units of reovirus through their recovery in cell culture, with effectivenesses averaging 64 and 46%, respectively. Test samples prepared by the improved recovery method were virtually cytotoxicity free. Optimal recovery of virus on 45-cm2 cell culture monolayers was obtained with 1-ml inocula adsorbed for 2 h. The most effective recovery of virus from shellfish samples was made by a sequential adsorption procedure which allowed equal exposure of an entire sample to each of two or more cell cultures. Removal of nonviral contaminants from test samples by antibiotic treatment was preferable to the use of ether or membrane filtration procedures. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform9?ETsarev, S. A. S. U. Emerson M. S. Balayan J. Ticehurst R. H. Purcell 1991~Simian hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain AGM-27: comparison of genome structure and growth in cell culture with other HAV strains 1677-1683Journal of General Virology727Fragments of cDNA representing greater than 99% of the entire genome of wild-type hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain AGM-27, isolated from an African green monkey, were obtained by the polymerase chain reaction and sequenced. Comparison with other HAV isolates revealed differences in the predicted amino acid sequence in functionally critical parts of the genome. Comparison of the biological properties of AGM-27 with those of human wild-type and cell culture-adapted HM-175 strains revealed that AGM-27 grew in cell culture significantly better than did wild-type HM-175, but not as well as cell culture-adapted HM-175. AGM-27 and cell culture-adapted HM-175 were distinguishable by their differential growth in CV-1, FRhK-4 and primary AGMK cells. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?-Day, S. P. P. Murphy E. A. Brown S. M. Lemon 1992oMutations within the 5' nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus RNA which enhance replication in BS-C-1 cells 6533-6540Journal of Virology6611Passage of human hepatitis A virus (HAV) in cell culture results in attenuation of the virus as well as progressive increases in the efficiency of virus replication in cell culture. Because the presence of identical mutations within the 5' nontranslated regions (5'NTRs) of several independently isolated cell culture-adapted HAV variants suggests that the 5'NTR may play a role in determining this change in virus host range, we constructed chimeric infectious cDNA clones in which portions of the 5'NTR of cell culture-adapted HM175/p35 virus were replaced with cDNA from either wild-type virus (HM175/wt) or a second independently isolated, but closely related cell culture-adapted virus (HM175/p16). Substitution of the complete 5'NTR of HM175/p35 with the 5'NTR of HM175/wt resulted in virus with very small replication foci in continuous African green monkey kidney (BS-C-1) cells, indicating that 5'NTR mutations in HM175/p35 virus are required for optimal growth in these cells. A chimera with the 5'NTR sequence of HM175/p16 retained the large foci of HM175/p35 virus, while the growth properties of other viruses having chimeric 5'NTR sequences indicated that mutations at bases 152 and/or 203 to 207 enhance replication in BS-C-1 cells. These findings were confirmed in one-step growth experiments, which also indicated that radioimmunofocus size is a valid measure of virus replication competence in cell culture. An additional mutation at base 687 of HM175/p16 had only a minor role in enhancing growth. In contrast to their effect in BS-C-1 cells, these 5'NTR mutations did not enhance replication in continuous fetal rhesus monkey kidney (FRhK-4) cells. Thus, mutations at bases 152 and/or 203 to 207 enhance the replication of HAV in a highly host cell-specific fashion. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform ?Ping, L. H. S. M. Lemon 1992Antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies 2208-2216Journal of Virology664We examined the antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus (HAV) by characterizing a series of 21 murine monoclonal-antibody-resistant neutralization escape mutants derived from the HM175 virus strain. The escape phenotype of each mutant was associated with reduced antibody binding in radioimmunofocus assays. Neutralization escape mutations were identified at the Asp-70 and Gln-74 residues of the capsid protein VP3, as well as at Ser-102, Val-171, Ala-176, and Lys-221 of VP1. With the exception of the Lys-221 mutants, substantial cross-resistance was evident among escape mutants tested against a panel of 22 neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, suggesting that the involved residues contribute to epitopes composing a single antigenic site. As mutations at one or more of these residues conferred resistance to 20 of 22 murine antibodies, this site appears to be immunodominant in the mouse. However, multiple mutants selected independently against any one monoclonal antibody had mutations at only one or, at the most, two amino acid residues within the capsid proteins, confirming that there are multiple epitopes within this antigenic site and suggesting that single-amino-acid residues contributing to these epitopes may play key roles in the binding of individual antibodies. A second, potentially independent antigenic site was identified by three escape mutants with different substitutions at Lys-221 of VP1. These mutants were resistant only to antibody H7C27, while H7C27 effectively neutralized all other escape mutants. These data support the existence of an immunodominant neutralization site in the antigenic structure of hepatitis A virus which involves residues of VP3 and VP1 and a second, potentially independent site involving residue 221 of VP1. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?-Mbithi, J. N. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Sattar1993xComparative in vivo efficiencies of hand-washing agents against hepatitis A virus (HM-175) and poliovirus type 1 (Sabin) 3463-3469 Journal of Clinical Microbiology5910The abilities of 10 hygienic hand-washing agents and tap water (containing approximately 0.5 ppm of free chlorine) to eliminate strain HM-175 of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and poliovirus (PV) type 1 (Sabin) were compared by using finger pad and whole-hand protocols with three adult volunteers. A mixture of the two viruses was prepared in a 10% suspension of feces, and 10 microliters of the mixture was placed on each finger pad. The inoculum was allowed to dry for 20 min, and the contaminated area was exposed to a hand-washing agent for 10 s, rinsed in tap water, and dried with a paper towel. In the whole-hand protocol, the hands were contaminated with 0.5 ml of the virus mixture, exposed for 10 s to a hand-washing agent, washed, and dried as described above. Tryptose phosphate broth was used to elute any virus remaining on the finger pads or hands. One part of the eluate was assayed directly for PV with FRhK-4 cells, while the other part was first treated with a PV-neutralizing serum and then assayed for HAV with the same cell line. The results are reported as mean percentages of reduction in PFU compared with the amount of infectious virus detectable after initial drying. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform?Palmenberg, A. C.1987'Picornaviral processing: some new ideas191-198Journal Cellular Biochemistry 333(Review) Mature picornaviral proteins are derived by progressive, post-translational cleavage of a giant precursor polyprotein. At least three viral-encoded proteolytic activities are involved in the processing. The first cleavage takes place while the polyprotein is still nascent on a ribosome. In poliovirus, this event is probably catalyzed by peptide 2A, a protein from the middle portion of the genome. Most subsequent processing is effected by viral protease 3C, a thiol-type enzyme, responsible for eight to ten self-cleaving and autocatalytic reactions within the polyprotein. The final proteolytic processing event, maturation of the VPO peptide, may occur by a novel, autocatalytic, serine-type mechanism, where viral RNA serves as proton-acceptor during the cleavage reaction. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workformx?2Dowd, S. E. S. D. Pillai S. Wnag M. Y. Corapcioglu1998|Delineating the specific influence of virus isoelectric point and size on virus adsorption and transport through sandy soils405-410&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6427Many of the factors controlling viral transport and survival within the subsurface are still poorly understood. In order to identify the precise influence of viral isoelectric point on viral adsorption onto aquifer sediment material, we employed five different spherical bacteriophages (MS2, PRD1, Q beta, phi X174, and PM2) having differing isoelectric points (pI 3.9, 4.2, 5.3, 6.6, and 7.3 respectively) in laboratory viral transport studies. We employed conventional batch flowthrough columns, as well as a novel continuously recirculating column, in these studies. In a 0.78-m batch flowthrough column, the smaller phages (MS2, phi X174, and Q beta), which had similar diameters, exhibited maximum effluent concentration/initial concentration values that correlated exactly with their isoelectric points. In the continuously recirculating column, viral adsorption was negatively correlated with the isoelectric points of the viruses. A model of virus migration in the soil columns was created by using a one-dimensional transport model in which kinetic sorption was used. The data suggest that the isoelectric point of a virus is the predetermining factor controlling viral adsorption within aquifers. The data also suggest that when virus particles are more than 60 nm in diameter, viral dimensions become the overriding factor. ProCite Record Number: 6010Journal Short Form workform? Cliver, D. O.1997Virus transmission via food71-79Food Technology514tHumans often contract foodborne viral diseases as a result of ingesting foods that have been directly or indirectly contaminated with human feces. Most foodborne viruses are either the hepatitis A virus or the Norwalk-like gastroenteritis viruses. Detection methods for these viruses in foods are not routinary and are very difficult and costly. Contamination can be prevented by protecting food from contamination with feces or by treating vehicles such as water to inactive viruses that might be carried to a food. Viruses can also be inactivated by adequate heating, or with ultraviolet light or with strong oxidizing agents.ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform? Hurst, C. J.1988?Influence of aerobic microorganisms upon virus survival in soil696-699 Canadian Journal of Microbiology345,Survival of human poliovirus type 1 in a sandy loam soil appeared to be deleteriously influenced by aerobic microorganisms. This effect was determined by comparing the survival of virus in soil under four different possible combinations of aerobic versus anaerobic (H2-CO2) atmosphere and sterile versus nonsterile condition. Storage of samples was done in humid chambers to prevent soil desiccation. The effect attributed to aerobic microorganisms was measurable and statistically significant at all three incubation temperatures used in the study (1, 23, and 37 degrees C), with the increase in inactivation rate attributable to aerobic microorganisms generally being two to threefold. No comparable effect was observed to occur for anaerobic microorganisms under the sets of conditions employed in the study. ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform?hIino, S. S. Fujiyama K. Horiuchi K. Jyo Y. Kuwabara S. Sato S. Saika M. Morita K. Odoh S. Kuzuhara et al1992fClinical trial of a lyophilized inactivated hepatitis A candidate vaccine in healthy adult volunteers 323-328Vaccine105The safety and immunogenicity of a lyophilized inactivated hepatitis A vaccine was tested in healthy adult male volunteers. Thirty-six volunteers, all of whom were negative for antibody to HAV (anti-HAV), were divided into three dosage groups, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 micrograms of viral protein, respectively. Each group received a total course of three intramuscular injections at months 0, 1 and 6. Slight side effects were noted after 16 of 99 injections and the occurrence and degree were almost identical to those of other commercial vaccines. On the other hand, all subjects had measurable titres of serum anti-HAV neutralizing antibodies as early as 2 months after the first injection. The mean values of serum anti-HAV neutralizing antibodies at 7 months in the 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 micrograms dose groups were 64-, 12-, and 9-fold higher, respectively, than those observed at 5 days in five recipients given 7.5 mg kg-1 body weight of immune serum globulin (ISG). ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform?*Shaffer, P. T. T. G. Metcalf O. J. Sproul 1980HChlorine resistance of poliovirus isolants recovered from drinking water 1115-1121&Applied and Environmental Microbiology406Poliovirus 1 isolants were recovered from finished drinking water produced by a modern, well-operated water treatment plant. These waters contained free chlorine residuals in excess of 1 mg/liter. The chlorine inactivation of purified high-titer preparations of two such isolants was compared with the inactivation behavior of two stock strains of poliovirus 1, LSc and Mahoney. The surviving fraction of virus derived from the two natural isolants was shown to be orders of magnitude greater than that of the standard strains. These results raise the question whether indirect drinking water standards based on free chlorine residuals are adequate public health measures, or whether direct standards based on virus determinations might be necessary. ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workforms?&Lemon, S. M. R. W. Jansen E. A. Brown 1992RGenetic, antigenic and biological differences between strains of hepatitis A virusS40-S44Vaccine101Review~Recent studies have documented a considerable degree of genetic divergence among wild-type hepatitis A virus (HAV) strains recovered from different geographical locations. Human HAV strains can be grouped into four genotypes (I, II, III and VII) and unique simian strains belong to three additional genotypes (IV, V and VI). Between each of these genotypes, the nucleotide sequence varies at 15-25% of base positions in the P1 region. Despite this, there is good evidence that most, if not all, human strains of HAV are closely related antigenically. In contrast, although simian strains recovered from Old World monkeys are cross-reactive in immunoassays employing polyclonal antibodies, these strains have significant antigenic differences from human HAV strains. Nonetheless, because biological differences in the host range of these strains apparently preclude significant human infection, this is unlikely to pose a problem in controlling HAV infections with active immunization. Inactivated and attenuated vaccines produced from genotype I human strains (HM175 or CR326) are likely to provide protection against all relevant human HAV strains. ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform? Payment, P. F. Affoyon M. Trudel1988eDetection of animal and human enteric viruses in water from the Assomption River and its tributaries 967-973 Canadian Journal of Microbiology348Animal enteroviruses, reoviruses, and human enteric viruses were detected in water samples (20 L) from a major river system, the Assomption River in the province of Quebec. Animal enteroviruses, probably of porcine origin (this region is a major producer of pork), were isolated on porcine cell cultures and were found in 29 to 60% of water samples from the different sites on the river and in 19 to 48% of the water samples from the tributaries. The average concentration of these animal enteroviruses in water from the Assomption River was 2 to 7 mpniu/L (most probable number of infectious units per litre), and that from the tributaries varied from 3 to 24 mpniu/L. Reoviruses were detected in infected cell cultures by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Their origin is probably avian (broiler chicken farms) or human (untreated domestic waste waters) and they were detected in 19 to 52% of the water samples from the Assomption River at an average concentration of 3 to 12 mpniu/L. In water samples from the tributaries, 5 to 71% of the samples were positive at an average concentration of 5 to 24 mpniu/L. Human enteric viruses were detected in MA-104 cells by an immunoperoxidase assay using human immune serum globulin. They were detected in 13 to 72% of water samples from the Assomption River and 14 to 71% of the water samples from the tributaries. The average concentration of these human enteric viruses in Assomption River water varied from 1 to 12 and from 2 to 145 mpniu/L in water samples from the tributaries. ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform?HDubois, E. F. le Guyader L. Haugarreau H. Kopecka M. Cormier M. Pommepuy1997Molecular epidemiological survey of rotaviruses in sewage by reverse transcriptase seminested PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism assay 1794-1800&Applied and Environmental Microbiology635!Rotavirus double-stranded RNA was detected directly in sewage treatment plant samples over a 1-year period by reverse transcription followed by PCR amplification of the VP7 gene and Southern blot hybridization. The presence of naturally occurring rotaviruses was demonstrated in 42% of raw sewage samples and in 67% of treated effluent samples. Amplified viral sequences were analyzed by restriction enzymes. Ten different restriction profiles were characterized, most of which were found in treated effluent samples. A mixture of restriction profiles was observed in 75% of contaminated effluent samples. The profiles were compared with those obtained from human rotavirus isolates involved in infections in children from the same area (six different profiles were detected). Five identical viral sequences were detected in both environmental and clinical samples. Restriction profiles were also compared to profiles from known genomic sequences of human and animal viruses. Both human and animal origins of rotavirus contamination of water seemed likely. ProCite Record Number: 6020Journal Short Form workform? Cliver, D. O.19682Apparent "double mutation" induced by gamma rays. 187-188Nature218137ProCite Record Number: 6030Journal Short Form workform?0Krah, D. L. R. D. Amin D. R. Nalin P. J. Provost1991dA simple antigen-reduction assay for the measurement of neutralizing antibodies to hepatitis A virus634-637Journal of Infectious Diseases1633A simplified hepatitis A virus (HAV) antigen-reduction neutralization assay (HAVARNA) was developed to permit the measurement of biologically active antibodies in recipients of candidate HAV vaccines. Degrees of neutralization were measured from the reduction in the amount of HAV antigen synthesized by 7-10 days after infection of MRC-5 (fetal human diploid lung) cell cultures. Sera producing a greater than or equal to 50% reduction in viral infectivity were scored as neutralizing. The assay was applied to demonstrate serum HAV neutralizing activity in 10 of 10 and 9 of 10 recipients of 10(7) and 10(6) TCID50 doses, respectively, of the Merck CR326F (F' variant) live attenuated vaccine. The dilution end points of selected sera ranged from 1:10 to 1:640. The dilution end point of the World Health Organization reference globulin no. 1 was 1:530,000 (0.2 mlU/ml of HAV antibody). The HAVARNA provided a rapid, sensitive, and reproducible means to measure neutralizing antibodies to HAV. ProCite Record Number: 6030Journal Short Form workform?"Payment, P. F. Gamache G. Paquette1988qMicrobiological and virological analysis of water from two water filtration plants and their distribution systems 1304-1309!Canadian Journal of Microbiology 3412wThe microbial flora of the water produced by two water filtration plants and their drinking water distribution system were evaluated: the Pont-Viau (PV) and the Repentigny (RE) water filtration plants. Untreated water entering the plants contained 3.6 (PV) and 16.8 most probable number of infectious units (mpniu)/L (RE) enteric viruses and total coliform bacteria counts were 300,000 (PV) and 500,000 cfu/L (RE). Treated water leaving the plant was essentially free of all the bacterial indicators measured (total, stressed, and fecal coliforms; Aeromonas hydrophila; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Clostridium perfringens; enterococci) as well as of human enteric viruses. Heterotrophic plate counts at 20 and 35 degrees C were low in the freshly treated water leaving the plants, but bacterial regrowth was observed in both distribution systems at all sampling sites. Average counts for the heterotrophic plate count (20 degrees C) were between 10(6) and 10(7) cfu/L and counts were clearly increased with the distance from the plant. The most numerous bacterial genera encountered were Bacillus, Flavobacterium, and Pseudomonas (nonaeruginosa). ProCite Record Number: 6030Journal Short Form workformm?.Egger, D. L. Pasamontes M. Ostermayer K. Bienz1995Reverse transcription multiplex PCR for differentiation between polio- and enteroviruses from clinical and environmental samples 1442-1447 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3360For the rapid detection of polioviruses and their differentiation from nonpoliovirus enteroviruses, we developed a protocol in which clinical or environmental specimens are first inoculated onto cell cultures in tubes. After overnight incubation, the cultures are subjected to reverse transcription multiplex PCR with a primer pair which detects all enteroviruses (T. Hyypia, P. Auvinen, and M. Maaronen, J. Gen. Virol. 70:3261-3268 1989) and two newly designed primer pairs specific for all 36 poliovirus strains tested. The PCR products can unequivocally be identified by their lengths in agarose gels, whereas the genetic heterogeneity of the poliovirus strains precludes identification by back-hybridization with internal probes. The proposed protocol is highly insensitive to the inhibitory effects of substances in the sample (stool, sewage). It allows for the detection of polioviruses and for polioviruses to be distinguished from nonpoliovirus enteroviruses within 24 h, and it allows for the concomitant isolation of a viable strain suitable for further typing. ProCite Record Number: 6030Journal Short Form workform?3Payment, P. E. Franco L. Richardson J. Siemiatycki 1991Gastrointestinal health effects associated with the consumption of drinking water produced by point-of-use domestic reverse-osmosis filtration units945-948&Applied and Environmental Microbiology574-During a prospective epidemiological study of gastrointestinal health effects associated with the consumption of drinking water produced by reverse-osmosis domestic units, a correlation was demonstrated between the bacterial counts on R2A medium incubated at 35 degrees C and the reported gastrointestinal symptoms in families who used these units. A univariate correlation was found with bacterial counts on R2A medium at 20 degrees C but was confounded by the bacterial counts at 35 degrees C. Other variables, such as family size and amount of water consumed, were not independently explanatory of the rate of illness. These observations raise concerns for the possibility of increased disease associated with certain point-of-use treatment devices for domestic use when high levels of bacterial growth occur. ProCite Record Number: 6040Journal Short Form workform?0Brown, E. A. S. P. Day R. W. Jansen S. M. Lemon 1991Genetic variability within the 5' nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus RNA. Implications for secondary structure and function S138-S143Journal of Hepatology134The RNA genome of hepatitis A virus (HAV) contains a lengthy and relatively well conserved 5' nontranslated region (5'NTR). In other picornaviruses, the 5'NTR has been shown to have important functions related to the initiation of viral translation and replication of viral RNA, functions which are critically dependent on both primary and secondary RNA structure. We have utilized a phylogenetic approach to construct a model of the secondary structure of the HAV 5'NTR. By comparing the nucleotide sequences of genetically divergent simian and human HAV strains, we identified a series of covariant nucleotide substitutions which are predictive of conserved, double-stranded helical structures within the 5'NTR, and which thus permitted improved thermodynamic modeling of the secondary structure. The model was further refined based on the observed sites of cleavage of synthetic RNA by single- and double-strand specific RNAses. The results of these studies suggest that the 5'NTR of HAV has a general organization similar to that of other picornaviruses, and shares certain structural features and perhaps specific functions with the 5'NTRs of the cardioviruses and aphthoviruses. ProCite Record Number: 6040Journal Short Form workform:?BFernández, D. I. Valle R. Llamos M. Guerra L. Sorell J. Gavilondo1994vRapid detection of rotavirus in faeces using a dipstick system with monoclonal antibodies and colloidal gold as marker315-323Journal of Virological Methods482-3.(Original) Rotavirus, MAb, colloidal, dipstickRotavirus (RV) is known to be the most common cause of severe diarrhoea in infants and young children, each year leading to an estimated 800,000-900,000 deaths. RV also infects bovines and other species, with high morbidity and mortality. A rapid and simple 'naked-eye' dipstick system was developed to detect human RV in faeces, using nitrocellulose as solid phase, two monoclonal antibodies, and colloidal gold as marker. The system detects 10(4) viral particles (1-2 ng)/g of faeces. For human RV the specificity and sensitivity were 100% when compared with a commercial latex system, and 99% and 98%, respectively, when correlated with traditional RNA-PAGE, and 100% and 98% compared to an ELISA system. ProCite Record Number: 6040Journal Short Form workform?HPayment, P L. Richardson J. Siemiatycki R. Dewar M. Edwardes E. Franco 1991A randomized trial to evaluate the risk of gastrointestinal disease due to consumption of drinking water meeting current microbiological standards703-708!American Journal of Public Health816BACKGROUND: This project directly and empirically measured the level of gastrointestinal (GI) illness related to the consumption of tapwater prepared from sewage-contaminated surface waters and meeting current water quality criteria. METHODS: A randomized intervention trial was carried out; 299 eligible households were supplied with domestic water filters (reverse-osmosis) that eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants from their water, and 307 households were left with their usual tapwater without a filter. The GI symptomatology was evaluated by means of a family health diary maintained prospectively by all study families over a 15-month period. RESULTS: The estimated annual incidence of GI illness was 0.76 among tapwater drinkers compared with 0.50 among filtered water drinkers (p less than 0.01). These findings were consistently observed in all population subgroups. CONCLUSION: It is estimated that 35% of the reported GI illnesses among the tapwater drinkers were water-related and preventable. Our results raise questions about the adequacy of current standards of drinking water quality to prevent water-borne endemic gastrointestinal illness. ProCite Record Number: 6050Journal Short Form workform?/Brown, E. A. S. P. Day R. W. Jansen S. M. Lemon1991xThe 5' nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus RNA: secondary structure and elements required for translation in vitro 5828-5838Journal of Virology6511Although the lengthy 5' nontranslated regions (5'NTRs) of other picornaviral RNAs form highly ordered structures with important functions in viral translation, little is known about the 5'NTR of hepatitis A virus (HAV). We determined the nearly complete 5'NTR nucleotide sequences of two genetically divergent HAV strains (PA21 and CF53) and included these data in a comparative phylogenetic analysis of the HAV 5'NTR. We identified covariant nucleotide substitutions predictive of conserved secondary structures and used this information to develop a model of the 5'NTR secondary structure, which was further refined by thermodynamic predictions and nuclease digestion experiments. According to this model, the 5'NTR comprises six major structural domains. Domains I and II (bases 1 to 95) contain a 5'-terminal hairpin and two stem-loops followed by a single-stranded and highly variable pyrimidine-rich tract (bases 96 to 154). The remainder of the 5'NTR (domains III to VI, bases 155 to 734) contains several complex stem-loops, one of which may form a pseudoknot, and terminates in a highly conserved region containing an oligopyrimidine tract preceding the putative start codon by 13 bases. To determine which structural elements might function as an internal ribosome entry site, RNA transcripts representing the HAV 5'NTR with progressive 5' deletions were translated in rabbit reticulocyte lysates. The translation product was truncated, unprocessed P1 polyprotein. Removal of the 5'-terminal 354 bases of the 5'NTR had little effect on translation. However, deletion to base 447 slightly decreased translation, while deletion to base 533 almost completely abolished it. These data indicate that sequences 3' of base 355 play an important role in the translation mechanism utilized by genomic-length HAV RNA. Significantly, this region shares several conserved structural features with the internal ribosome entry site element of murine encephalomyocarditis virus. ProCite Record Number: 6050Journal Short Form workformY?$Klemola, T. E. Savilahti P. Leinikki19865Mumps IgA antibodies are not absorbed from human milk230-232ACTA Paediatrica Scandinavica752vWe measured mumps virus specific IgA antibodies in the sera of preterm infants after a feeding period on human milk rich in such antibodies. In full-term infants the possibility of absorption was determined from the content of these antibodies in the child's mother's milk, an umbilical cord blood sample and a later serum sample. No absorption of IgA antibodies was found. ProCite Record Number: 6050Journal Short Form workformO?FFleissner, M. L. J. E. Herrmann J. W. Booth N. R. Blacklow N. A. Nowak1989aRole of Norwalk virus in two foodborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis: definitive virus association165-172 American Journal of Epidemiology1291O(Original) Enzyme immunoassay, Norwalk agent, radioimmunoassay, gastroenteritisTwo separate food-associated outbreaks of gastroenteritis occurred among Erie County, New York residents in June 1986. In one outbreak, cases of illness were estimated to have occurred in 50% of the approximately 700 persons in 13 groups who ate at an out-of-county restaurant during a seven-day period, and, in the second outbreak, illness occurred in 26 (30%) of 87 persons who attended a graduation party held in a private home. Laboratory investigation included serology (blocking radioimmunoassay) to determine seroconversion to Norwalk virus and an enzyme immunoassay for detection of Norwalk virus antigen in stools, which the investigators have found to be more specific for Norwalk virus than serology. Seroconversion to Norwalk virus occurred in 11 (79%) of 14 restaurant-related cases and seven (100%) of seven graduation party cases. Seroconversion to Norwalk virus antigen was also found in four (40%) of 10 food handlers at the restaurant and in two (100%) of two food handlers at the graduation party. Antigen was detected in the stools of three (20%) of 15 restaurant-related cases and four (67%) of six graduation party cases. No stools for viral analyses were available for testing from food handlers. All seven of the patients with Norwalk virus-positive stools were also positive by seroconversion. Widespread availability of reagents for stool antigen detection would result in confirmation of more outbreaks due to Norwalk virus and in a more timely manner. ProCite Record Number: 6050Journal Short Form workform?+Divizia, M. V. Ruscio A. M. Degener A. Pana1998BHepatitis A virus detection in wastewater by PCR and hybridization161-167New Microbiology212Hepatitis A virus is a member of the Picornaviridae family and is a principal agent of acute hepatitis worldwide, causing from mild to severe illness. Although the incidence of hepatitis A is in decline, the risk of this disease is still high in the Mediterranean area. Detection of hepatitis A in the environment is difficult because this virus needs a prolonged incubation in cell culture, therefore we used an antigen capture PCR (AC-PCR) followed by a hybridization on membrane to identify HAV in wastewater samples. The raw sewage, concentrated by ultrafiltration, showed 8 positive samples out of 10 (80%), while after the oxidation step of the sewage, 2 out of 10 (20%) and 3 out of 10 (30%) were found positive respectively after concentration by electronegative (HAWP Millipore) and electropositive (1MDS Cuno-Div.) membranes. In the final effluent the positivity was 1 out of 10 (10%) for the electronegative membranes and 3 out of 10 (30%) for the electropositive membranes. Our results indicate: i) the possibility of HAV to cross the wastewater treatment plant and contaminate water and food (such as mussels); ii) PCR-hybridization as a rapid method for HAV identification in the environment. ProCite Record Number: 6060Journal Short Form workformm?_Martins, M. T. A. el-Shaarawi B. J. Dutka V. H. Pellizari G. Alfredo G. Ribeiro E. F. Matsumoto1989EColiphage association with coliform indicators: a case study - Brazil329-338???4^Many microbiological tests are currently available for evaluating the suitability of water resources for human use. Cost, speed, simplicity, and the ability of the test to detect microbial contamination are some of the key factors involved in selecting the appropriate test. The performance of the test often depends on the nature of the tested water and hence it is necessary to evaluate the test under local conditions. This paper compares the performance of several microbiological tests on Branzilian waters. These tests include traditional coliform tests, and the presence/absence and coliphage tests.ProCite Record Number: 6060Journal Short Form workform?&Kidd, A. H. E. H. Harley M. J. Erasmus1985hSpecific detection and typing of adenovirus types 40 and 41 in stool specimens by dot-blot hybridization934-939 Journal of Clinical Microbiology226A dot-blot hybridization test was developed which allowed the direct detection of fastidious enteric adenovirus DNA in stool specimens from children with diarrhea and simultaneous typing of the viruses as adenovirus type 40 (Ad40) or Ad41. Cloned PstI fragments of Ad40 and Ad41 were used as 32P-labeled probes in the test, which allowed detection of picogram quantities of viral DNA in 20 to 40 microliter of stool suspension. Results were obtained within 48 h. The type specificity of the test was evaluated with 76 specimens known to contain either Ad40 or Ad41 by restriction enzyme analysis. Sixty-one specimens had sufficient DNA to be detected without any removal of protein. Thirty-one adenoviruses were typed as Ad40, and 30 were typed as Ad41, giving 100% correlation with the results of restriction enzyme analysis. The other 15 specimens were detected and typed as Ad40 or Ad41 only after removal of protein by a phenol extraction method. The dot-blot hybridization method is particularly useful for identifying those Ad40 and Ad41 strains which defy all attempts at culture and will be a useful tool in the epidemiology of fastidious enteric adenovirus infections. ProCite Record Number: 6060Journal Short Form workform?DSobsey, M. D. P. A. Shields F. H. Hauchman R. L. Hazard L. W. Caton 1986PSurvival and transport of hepatitis A virus in soils, groundwater and wastewater97-106Water Science and Technology18ProCite Record Number: 6070Journal Short Form workform)?+McLaren, L. C. J. J. Holland J. T. Syverton1959wThe mammalian cell-virus relationship I. attachment of poliovirus to cultivated cells of primate and non-primate origin475-485 Journal of Experimental Medicine109ProCite Record Number: 6070Journal Short Form workform?Kalitina, T. A.1978TDevelopment of a method of concentrating enteroviruses for virologic studies of meat621-625Voprosy Virusologii 5A method for concentration of enteroviruses in meat extracts was developed using polyvinylpyrrolidone (molecular mass 10,000), polyethylene glycol (molecular mass 15,000), both in 10% concentration, silicagel with a granule size of 200 mesh in a concentration of 5%, aluminum hydroxide in an amount of centrifuged pellet of 5 ml of original suspension per 10 ml meat extract. When the optimal conditions of meat extract preparation (meat mass: Hanks' solution ration 1: 10) were observed, followed by virus concentration in polymers of silicagel 2--4 PFU of enteroviruses in 1 g of meat could be determined in all the experiments. Virus doses of 0.2--0.5 PFU per 1 g of meat could be detected in some experiments. ProCite Record Number: 6070(Journal Short Form workform (42) RussianA?Green, D. H. G. D. Lewis1995;Enzymatic amplification of enteric viruses from wastewaters329-336Water Science and Technology315-6(Original) Waste-water concerntration and purification, enzymatic, amplification (RT-PCR), enteroviruses, rotaviruses, hepatitis A virus, polymerase chain-reaction, DNA-polymerase, water, probesThe challenge to use of enzymatic amplification for detection of waterborne viruses is the effective removal of a range of inhibitory components present in environmental samples. This study combines a number of individual processes to simultaneously concentrate and purify enteric viruses from wastewaters. The procedure of secondary concentration and purification, using chloroform extraction, polyethylene glycol precipitation, Sephadex G-200 gel filtration, and ultrafiltration, was shown to be 39 and 31 % efficient in recovering enterovirus from raw sewage and oxidation pond effluent respectively, achieving a 100-fold reduction of the sample volume from 10 mL to 100 mu L. The secondary concentrates were analysed by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction, and the sensitivity was shown to be between 0.02-0.2 plaque forming units of enterovirus. This allows this theoretical detection of approximately 1 PFU/L of wastewater. The Tth polymerase was shown to be more effective for the amplification of virus in wastewaters than was Tag polymerase. Overall, the procedure enabled the sensitive detection of rotavirus, hepatitis A, and enterovirus from wastewaters.ProCite Record Number: 6080Journal Short Form workform\?DKaplan, J. E. R. A. Goodman L. B. Schonberger E. C. Lippy G. W. Gary1982ZGastroenteritis due to Norwalk virus: an outbreak associated with a municipal water system190-197Journal of Infectious Diseases14622An outbreak of gastroenteritis lasting for one week in August 1980 affected approximately 1,500 persons in a community in northern Georgia. Investigation included a telephone survey of the community, a survey of textile plant employees and junior high and high school students and staff, and a neighborhood door-to-door survey. An association between gastrointestinal illness and consumption of drinking water was shown for community residents, students, and school staff. Attack rates (0-68%) determined in 10 neighborhoods increased significantly (P less than 0.001) with proximity to a textile plant, the site of one of two known cross-connections between an industrial water system (which contained fecal coliform bacteria) and the community water system. A fourfold rise in titer of antibody to Norwalk virus was found in 12 of 19 serum pairs from patients. Norwalk virus illness associated with drinking water from a large municipal water system has not been documented previously. Norwalk virus may be an important cause of waterborne morbidity in the United States. ProCite Record Number: 6080Journal Short Form workform?=Grabow, W. O. K. V. Gauss-Müller O. W. Prozesky F. Deinhardt1983]Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and indicator organisms in water by free chlorine residuals619-624&Applied and Environmental Microbiology463Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and selected indicator organisms were mixed together in chlorine-demand-free buffers at pH 6, 8, or 10 and exposed to free chlorine residuals, and the survival kinetics of individual organisms were compared. HAV was enumerated by a most-probable-number dilution assay, using PLC/PRF/5 liver cells for propagation of the virus and radioimmunoassay for its detection. At all pH levels, HAV was more sensitive than Mycobacterium fortuitum, coliphage V1 (representing a type of phage common in some sewage-polluted waters), and poliovirus type 2. Under certain conditions, HAV was more resistant than Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis, coliphage MS2, and reovirus type 3. It was always more resistant than SA-11 rotavirus. Evidence is presented that conditions generally specified for the chlorine disinfection of drinking-water supplies will also successfully inactivate HAV and that HAV inactivation by free chlorine residuals can reliably be monitored by practical indicator systems consisting of appropriate combinations of suitable indicators such as coliform and acid-fast bacteria, coliphages, the standard plate count, and fecal streptococci. ProCite Record Number: 6090Journal Short Form workform?Sobsey, M. D. T. Fuji R. Hall1991HInactivation of cell-associated and dispersed hepatitis A virus in water64-67/Journal of the American Water Works Association8311ProCite Record Number: 6100Journal Short Form workform?Green, M. S. K. Dotan1988YEfficacy of immune serum globulin in an outbreak of hepatitis A virus infection in adults265-270Journal of Infection173(Summary) While immune serum globulin has been shown to be highly effective in preventing hepatitis A infection when administered before exposure to the virus, its efficacy when given after exposure is less clear. Timing of administration appears critical and the question of whether it modifies the clinical manifestations of the disease with possible asymptomatic seroconversion has not been conclusively answered. These aspects were examined in a common-source outbreak of 19 cases of hepatitis A in a military unit. Immune serum globulin administered between 2 and 3 weeks after suspected exposure to the virus did not modify clinical manifestations of the disease. Furthermore, in a subgroup studied serologically, there were eight clinical cases and only one case of asymptomatic seroconversion. Thus, late administration of immune serum globulin appears to have little effect on the clinical course of hepatitis A infection and does not appear to result in any significant degree of active-passive immunity. ProCite Record Number: 6100Journal Short Form workformX?4Sobsey, M. D. D. A. Battigelli G. A. Shin S. Newland1998HRT-PCR amplification detects inactivated viruses in water and wastewater91-94Water Sci. Technol.3812(Original) Viruses, inactivation, disinfection, infectivity detection, RT-PCR assay, water, wastewater, model viruses, hepatitisNucleic acid (NA) amplification techniques are useful to detect viruses in water and other environmental samples because they are highly sensitive, specific and can detect fastidious enteric viruses that do not grow well or not at all in cell cultures. However, RT-PCR was found to detect inactivated viruses. In terms of risks to public health this constitutes a false positive result, as inactivated viruses are no longer infectious. When poliovirus type 1 and coliphage MS2 were studied for (a) persistence in water and sewage and (b) inactivation in water by free chlorine, chlorine dioxide and UV radiation, RT-PCR assays underestimated virus inactivation. The use of multiple RT-PCR amplification sites, larger RT-PCR genomic targets and immunocapture RT-PCR sometimes reduced, but did not eliminate, the discrepancy between loss of infectivity and loss of RT-PCR titre. Virus presence based on RT-PCR detection must be interpreted with caution when predicting human health risks.ProCite Record Number: 6110Journal Short Form workform?OGrimwood, K. J. C. S. Lund B. S. Coulson I. L. Hudson R. F. Bishop G. L. Barnes1988uComparison of serum and mucosal antibody responses following severe acute rotavirus gastroenteritis in young children732-738 Journal of Clinical Microbiology264The development of mucosal immunity is presumed to be the most important marker of rotavirus infection. The practical difficulties of obtaining small-bowel secretions stimulated this study of the antibody response to acute rotavirus infection at other sites. Forty-four infants admitted to the hospital with rotavirus gastroenteritis had serum, saliva, and feces collected at the acute phase (median, 5.5 days), during convalescence (median, 33.5 days), and 4 months later (median, 12.2 weeks). A subgroup of 19 children also had duodenal juice collected in parallel. Rotavirus-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgA, secretory immunoglobulin, and IgM were measured and compared in all samples. The results showed that the estimation of antirotavirus serum IgM, serum IgG, duodenal juice IgA, and duodenal juice IgM by an enzyme immunoassay indicated an immune response to severe primary rotavirus infection in all children. Four months later, the levels of serum IgG and IgA served as the most sensitive markers of the preceding rotavirus infection. The predictive accuracies of immune responses at different sites in relation to a positive IgA immune response in the duodenum were calculated. Fecal IgA predicted duodenal IgA rotavirus antibodies with accuracies of 86% at 1 month and 92% at 4 months. The high sensitivity of serum IgM and IgG in detecting rotavirus infection and the high predictive accuracy of fecal IgA as an indicator of duodenal IgA abrogates the need for duodenal intubation to detect (or monitor) an immune response to rotavirus infection. This finding has important practical implications for epidemiological studies of acute diarrhea in children and in rotavirus vaccine trials. ProCite Record Number: 6110Journal Short Form workform?>Reynolds, K. A. K. Roll R. S. Fjuioka C. P. Gerba I. L. Pepper1998vIncidence of enteroviruses in Mamala Bay, Hawaii using cell culture and direct polymerase chain reaction methodologies598-604 Canadian Journal of Microbiology446(Original)Enteroviruses, RT-PCR, cell culture, marine waters, hepatitis-A virus, recreational water, polluted waters, sewage sludge, tap water, PCR, adenoviruses,environment, rotavirusesThe consequence of point and nonpoint pollution sources, discharged into marine waters, on public recreational beaches in Mamala Bay, Hawaii was evaluated using virus cell culture and direct reverse transcriptase - polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Twelve sites, nine marine, two freshwater (one stream and one canal), and one sewage, were assessed either quarterly or monthly for 1 year to detect the presence of human enteric viruses. Water samples were concentrated from initial volumes of 400 L to final volumes of 30 mL using Filterite electronegative cartridge filters and a modified beef extract elution procedure. Cell culture was applied using the Buffalo Green Monkey kidney cell line to analyze samples for enteroviruses. Positive samples were also evaluated by RT-PCR, using enterovirus-specific primers. Levels of RT-PCR inhibition varied with each concentrated sample. Resin column purification increased PCR detection sensitivity by at least one order of magnitude in a variety of sewage outfall and recreational marine water samples but not in the freshwater canal samples. Using cell culture, viable enteroviruses were found in 50 and 17% of all outfall and canal samples, respectively. Samples were positive at beaches 8% of the time. These data illustrate the potential public health hazard associated with recreational waters. Using direct PCR, viruses were detected at the outfall but were not found in any beach or canal samples, in part, owing to substances that inhibit PCR. Therefore, conventional cell culture is the most effective means of detecting low levels of infectious enteroviruses in environmental waters, whereas direct RT-PCR is rendered less effective by inhibitory compounds and low equivalent reaction volumes.ProCite Record Number: 6120Journal Short Form workform?AGustafson, T. L. R. H. Hutcheson, Jr. R. S. Fericker W. Schaffner1983fAn outbreak of foodborne hepatitis A: the value of serologic testing and matched case-control analysis 1199-1201"American Journal of Public Health 7310In April 1981, an outbreak of hepatitis A occurred among state legislators in Tennessee. Although the number of cases was small, we traced the source to a food handler who served cold meats and cheese. This investigation demonstrates the value of rapid serologic testing using a radioimmunoassay technique and matched case-control analysis to identify small foodborne outbreaks of hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 6120Journal Short Form workform?Young, D. C. D. G. Sharp19792Partial reactivation of chlorine-treated echovirus766-773&Applied and Environmental Microbiology374After treatment of a dispersed suspension of echovirus with HOCl, much of the lost plaque titer was restored if the treated virus was induced to aggregate by adjustment of the suspending medium to pH 4.5. This did not appear to be a repair of individual virions but rather a special kind of multiplicity-related increase in plaquing efficiency which occurred when the host cell received several of the damaged virions in a clump. ProCite Record Number: 6130Journal Short Form workform ?Guttman-Bass, N. A. Nasser1984TSimultaneous concentration of four enteroviruses from tap, waste, and natural waters 1311-1315&Applied and Environmental Microbiology476The efficiency of virus recovery from water was investigated by using a method which enabled the concentration of a mixture of four enteroviruses with determination of their individual recovery efficiencies. The four viruses used (poliovirus 1, coxsackievirus A9, coxsackievirus B1, and echovirus 7) represented each of the four major subgroups of enteroviruses. This method, which was based on selective antibody neutralization, was used to investigate the effects of input water quality on enterovirus concentration by Balston filters (grade C; Balston, Inc., Lexington, Mass.) and organic flocculation. With tap water, the average recovery efficiency of the four viruses was 97%. Concentration from natural waters, including samples from two lakes (Lake Kinneret and the Hula Nature Reserve) and the Mediterranean Sea, resulted in similarly high average recovery efficiencies. Echovirus 7 was recovered with a slightly lower average efficiency from these types of water than were the other viruses. In comparison with other types of water, virus concentration from Jerusalem wastewater generally had a slightly lower efficiency of recovery, ranging from 63 to 75% for each of the viruses, with an overall average of 68%. The ability of each concentration step, membrane filtration or organic flocculation, to recover the viruses from water was assayed. For the filtration step, although there were not large differences in virus recoveries from tap water, echovirus 7 was recovered with the lowest efficiency (72%), and poliovirus 1 was recovered with the highest (87%) efficiency. Overall virus recovery by the filtration step was least efficient for wastewater (73%) and most efficient for seawater (107%). The organic flocculation step was highly efficient, with essentially all of the virus recoveredeither as individual viruses or as a mixture. Of the types of water tested, viruses were recovered from seawater with the lowest efficiency. In summary, although some differences in virus recovery were observed for various types of water and individual viruses, the range was not large. Thus, the two-step concertration method used was found to be an efficient general method for enterovirus concentration from water.ProCite Record Number: 6130Journal Short Form workform?CLaskus, T. M. Radkowski L. F. Wang J. Cianciara H. Vargas J. Rakeoa1997Hepatitis C virus negative strand RNA is not detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and viral sequences are identical to those in serum: a case against extrahepatic replication 2742-2750Journal of General Virology7811Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 27 hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients were analysed for the presence of HCV negative strand RNA with strand-specific Tth-based RT-PCR. No negative strand RNA was detected in any sample, and positive strand HCV sequences amplified from PBMCs were identical to those found in serum. These findings suggest that HCV does not replicate in PBMCs, and the presence of HCV sequences at this site is compatible with passive virus adsorption and/or contamination by circulating virus. ProCite Record Number: 6140Journal Short Form workform?@Hartemann, Ph. J. C. Block J. C. Joret J. M. Foliguet Y. Richard1983FVirological study of drinking and wastewater disinfection by ozonation145-154Water Science and Technology15During laboratory assays of microbiological inactivation in a pilot water treatment plant (36 1/h) with drinking water artificially contaminated with poliovirus 1 and fecal indicator bacteria, ozonation shows a very strong disinfection power. There is no significant difference in the sensibility of these microorganisms to ozone. In the same laboratory plant during raw wastewater disinfection assays, the indigenous enteric viruses present a greater resistance to ozone than the indigenous fecal indicators. These results point out the important difference between the use of laboratory strains and indigenous microorganisms and confirm the interest in ozone disinfection for virucidal purposes.ProCite Record Number: 6140Journal Short Form workformg?0Lanford, R. E. D. Chavez F. V. Chisari C. Sureau1995Lack of detection of negative-strand hepatitis C virus RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and other extrahepatic tissues by highly strand-specific rTth reverse transcriptase PCR 8079-8083Journal of Virology6912To further explore the controversial potential for extrahepatic replication of hepatitis C virus (HCV), the highly strand-specific rTth method of reverse transcriptase PCR was used to examine sera, liver, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and other extrahepatic tissues from HCV-infected chimpanzees and humans. Positive-strand HCV RNA was present in the liver at approximately 10-fold-higher levels than negative-strand HCV RNA. No negative-strand RNA was detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells or other extrahepatic tissues despite the presence of abundant positive-strand RNA. These data demonstrate that within the limits of sensitivity of this highly strand-specific reverse transcriptase PCR method, no extrahepatic replication of HCV was detected.ProCite Record Number: 6150Journal Short Form workformO?@Laskus, T. Radkowski L. F. Wang J. Cianciara H. Vargas J. Rakeoa1997vLack of evidence for hepatitis G virus replication in the livers of patients coinfected with hepatitis C and G viruses 7804-7806Journal of Virology7110The pathogenic implications of hepatitis G virus (HGV) infection are still unclear. We searched for the presence of HGV RNA and HCV RNA sequences in liver and serum samples from 10 patients with chronic liver disease, 9 of whom were coinfected with HCV. All livers were negative for the presence of the HGV RNA minus strand and only six were positive for the presence of the positive strand, albeit at low levels. In striking contrast, the HCV RNA positive strand was detectable in the liver samples from all nine HCV-positive patients in titers ranging from 10(2) to 10(8) genomic eq/microg of RNA, and the negative HCV RNA strand was present in all but two of these patients. However, the positive-strand RNA titers in serum for the two viruses had similar ranges. These findings imply that the liver is not the primary replication site for HGV, at least in the population of HCV/HGV-coinfected patients. Absence of replication in liver tissue may explain the reported lack of influence of HGV coinfection on the course of chronic hepatitis C. ProCite Record Number: 6160Journal Short Form workform?Hogle, J. M. D. J. Filman1989%The antigenic structure of poliovirus467-478XPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Series B- Biological Sciences3231217ReviewWe have solved the structure of the Mahoney strain of type 1 and the Sabin (attenuated vaccine) strain of type 3 poliovirus by X-ray crystallographic methods. By providing a three-dimensional framework for the interpretation of a wealth of experimental data, the structures have yielded insight into the architecture and assembly of the virus particle, have provided information regarding the entry of virus into susceptible cells, and defined the sites on the virus particle that are recognized by neutralizing monoclonal antibodies. Thus locating mutations in variants selected for resistance to neutralizing monoclonal antibodies has defined three antigenic sites of the surface of the virion, and provided clues as to the mechanisms by which viruses escape neutralization. Finally, comparison of the structures of the two strains, together with analysis of sequences of many poliovirus strains, have begun to define the structural changes associated with serotypic differences between polioviruses. ProCite Record Number: 6160Journal Short Form workform?@Laskus, T. Radkowski L. F. Wang J. Cianciara H. Vargas J. Rakeoa1998tDetection of hepatitis G virus replication sites by using highly strand-specific Tth-based reverse transcriptase PCR 3072-3075Journal of Virology724The replication sites of the recently discovered hepatitis G virus (HGV) remain unknown. Using highly strand-specific Tth-based reverse transcriptase PCR, we searched for the presence of viral RNA negative strand in multiple autopsy tissues from four patients with AIDS and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from six other human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Negative-strand HGV RNA was detected in three of four bone marrow samples, in two of two spleen samples, and in one of four liver tissue samples. However, the specific cellular site of replication within the positive tissues was not determined. This study does not support HGV as a primary hepatotropic virusProCite Record Number: 6170Journal Short Form workform]?!Jensen, J. J. Aiken R. D. Schultz1990yDetection of bovine viral diarrhea virus genome in leukocytes from persistently infected cattle by RNA-cDNA hybridization256-259'Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research542/A bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) cDNA library was constructed. One cloned complementary DNA sequence was used as a probe to detect BVDV RNA by hybridization in infected cell cultures and in mononuclear leukocytes from persistently infected cattle by dot blot and in situ hybridization. The cDNA probe hybridized with all cytopathic and noncytopathic BVDV isolates tested. The hybridization results were consistent with results obtained using conventional subculturing and immunofluorescent staining methods and by inoculation of seronegative test cattle. ProCite Record Number: 6170Journal Short Form workform#?;Lanford, R. E. C. Sureau J. R. James R. White T. R. Furest 1994qDemonstration of in vitro infection of chimpanzee hepatocytes with hepatitis C virus using strand-specific RT/PCR606-614Virology2022Analysis of hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication has been hampered due to the difficulty encountered in in vitro cultivation of the virus in conventional tissue culture systems. In this study, primary chimpanzee hepatocyte cultures maintained in a serum-free medium formulation were susceptible to in vitro infection with HCV. In order to document infection, two new methods of reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction were developed that permit accurate distinction between positive and negative strand HCV RNA. One method relied upon the use of a tagged cDNA primer, while the second method employed a thermostable reverse transcriptase. Following inoculation of chimpanzee hepatocytes with HCV, intracellular positive and negative strand HCV RNA were detectable 4 days postinfection and throughout the remainder of the experimental period, 25 days. Analysis of HCV-inoculated baboon hepatocytes revealed a total absence of negative strand HCV RNA, while residual positive strand RNA from the inoculum could be detected for up to 11 days. The in vitro replication of HCV RNA in chimpanzee hepatocytes could be suppressed by alpha-interferon. This system should be amenable to the study of HCV replication, antiviral compounds, and the development of neutralization assays. ProCite Record Number: 6180Journal Short Form workformF?8Holmberg, S. D. M. T. Osterholm K. A. Senger M. L. Cohen19849Drug-resistant Salmonella from animals fed antimicrobials617-622New England Journal of Medicine31110GIt has been difficult to document the postulated sequence of events that begins with the selection of drug-resistant organisms in animals fed subtherapeutic amounts of antimicrobials and ends with clinically important infections in human beings. In early 1983 we identified 18 persons in four Midwestern states who were infected with Salmonella newport that was resistant to ampicillin, carbenicillin, and tetracycline and characterized by a 38-kilobase R plasmid. Twelve of these patients had been taking penicillin derivatives for medical problems other than diarrhea in the 24 to 48 hours before the onset of salmonellosis. Eleven patients were hospitalized for salmonellosis for an average of eight days, and one had a fatal nosocomial infection. We compared plasmid profiles of all human (six-state area) and animal (United States) S. newport isolates over an 18-month period and examined selected records of meat distribution. The results indicated that the patients had been infected before they took antimicrobials, by eating hamburger originating from South Dakota beef cattle fed subtherapeutic chlortetracycline for growth promotion. This study demonstrates that antimicrobial-resistant organisms of animal origin cause serious human illness, and emphasizes the need for more prudent use of antimicrobials in both human beings and animals. ProCite Record Number: 6180Journal Short Form workformR?PAndreoletti, L. D. Hober P. Becquart S. Belaich M. C. Copin V. Lambert P. Wattre1997Experimental CVB3-induced chronic myocarditis in two murine strains: evidence of interrelationships between virus replication and myocardial damage in persistent cardiac infection206-214Journal of Medical Virology522In order to analyse the relationships between enteroviral replication and the myocardial damage at the onset of chronic cardiac infection, 2 mouse strains with different degrees of immunological competence (NMRI nu/nu, DBA/2) were infected by a myocarditic Coxsackie virus B3 (CVB3-M1) variant. At 31 days post-inoculation, plaque-forming assay, polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and immunohistochemistry were carried out for detecting viruses and viral components in the myocardium. The virological findings were related to histopathological changes in the myocardium as well to the dilatation of both cardiac ventricles. Chronic myocardial lesions characterized by large fibrosis areas and interstitial inflammatory infiltrates were detected together with cardiomegalia in 52.6% (10/19) of athymic mice and in 9% (2/22) of euthymic mice. Viral replication foci were located and were found only in myocarditic cells adjacent to myocardial inflammatory lesions by immunostaining myocardial tissue sections with anti-serum to VP1 virus capsid protein. Using PCR followed by microwell capture hybridization assay, a large excess of viral positive strand RNA over negative strand was semiquantified in heart tissue from mice with chronic myocarditis, whereas approximately equal amounts of plus and minus strand RNA were detected in cases of persistent cardiac infection without chronic myocardial injuries. These findings provide evidence of the major role of viral replication in the pathogenesis of chronic murine CVB3-induced cardiomyopathy. The results indicate that the cardiac persistence of enteroviral RNAs can be observed without chronic cardiomyopathy, which could be explained by a defective viral positive RNA replication. ProCite Record Number: 6190Journal Short Form workform?Girones, R. J. Jofre A. Bosch19893Natural inactivation of enteric viruses in seawater34-39 Journal of Environmental Quality181The stability of viruses in marine water was evaluated. Poliovirus 1 was readily inactivated in seawater from five different sources. Moderately polluted watersamples showed more antiviral activity than more heavily polluted or unpolluted samples. An antiviral activity coefficient (AVA) was calculated to express the level of antiviral activity in the test samples, demonstrating the occurence of natural virus-inactivating phenomena in all the marine samples but not in freshwater samples. The major virus-inactivating agent(s) appeared to be of bacteriological nature on the basis of the physical size and the susceptibility of the antiviral activity to thermal and antibiotic treatments. In studies on comparative survival, poliovirus 1 showed faster decay rates than rotavirus SA11, coliphage f2, and bacteriophage B40-8 under laboratory and field conditions. No differences among the other viral strains were observed. The validity of bacteriophages as surrogate indicators of viral pollutants in the marine environment is discussed.ProCite Record Number: 6190Journal Short Form workform?WTaylor, M. B. P. J. Becker E. J. van Rensburg B. N. Harris I. W. Balley W. O. K. Grabow1995HA serosurvey of water-borne pathogens amongst canoeists in South Africa 299-307>Epidemiology and Infection 1152FCertain health risks have been associated with recreational exposure to faecally polluted water. Canoeing in certain South African waters is considered to be a high risk activity with regard to schistosomiasis, gastroenteritis and possibly hepatitis. In a cross-sectional study, a serosurvey was conducted amongst canoeists to ascertain whether or not they had a higher seroprevalence to hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus and Schistosoma spp. than non-canoeists. In comparisons between the two groups, a significant association could not be demonstrated between canoeing and antibody response to hepatitis A and Norwalk viruses (P-values for age-adjusted Chi(2) were 0.083 and 0.219 respectively), but a significant association could be demonstrated between canoeing and the antibody response to Schistosoma spp. (P < 0.001; age-adjusted).ProCite Record Number: 6200Journal Short Form workform?*Shieh, Y. S. C D. Wait L. Tai M. D. Sobsey1995xMethods to remove inhibitors in sewage and other fecal wastes for enterovirus detection by the polymerase chain reaction51-66Journal of Virological Methods541Typical environmental sample concentration procedures developed to purify virions are not always compatible with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The processing steps of polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation and ultrafiltration were found to enrich not only virions but also certain RT-PCR inhibitors. Inhibitors were eliminated by a single-step guanidinium isothiocyanate (GIT) extraction to purify and precipitate viral genomic RNAs immediately prior to RT-PCR. The detection sensitivity of GIT extraction--RT-PCR was found to be 0.6-0.003 50% tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50) for 9 enteroviruses in infected cell extracts. When sewage, concentrated up to 385,000-fold and seeded with 1-3 plaque-forming units of poliovirus, was extracted with GIT solution, viruses were detectable in samples originally judged negative by direct RT-PCR without GIT extraction. Eleven waste samples (3 sewage, 5 latrine solids, 2 gauze pads extracts and 1 stool) processed by a series of steps that included PEG precipitation, solvent extractions, and Sephadex G-200 chromatography were examined for enteroviruses by RT-PCR, both with and without GIT extraction. GIT extraction eliminated sample inhibitory substances and increased the proportion of enterovirus positive samples from 3 to 7 of 11. GIT extraction in conjunction with virion concentration improves RT-PCR detection of viruses in sewage and other fecal wastes. ProCite Record Number: 6210Journal Short Form workformp?:Scarpino, P. V. M. Lucas D. R. Dahling G. Berg S. L. Chang1974^Effectiveness of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion in destruction of viruses and bacteria359-3686Chemistry of Water supply, Treatment, and Distribution Chapter 15Rulin A. J. (ed.)!Ann Arbor Science Publisher, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 6210Book Chapter workform?+Nainan, O. V. T. L. Cromeans H. S. Margolis1996tSequence-specific, single-primer amplification and detection of PCR products for identification of hepatitis viruses127-134Journal of Virological Methods611-2kA simple system to detect polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification products was developed. This detection method has the sensitivity and the specificity of nested primer PCR amplification or Southern blot hybridization of PCR product. Digoxigenin-labeled PCR products were hybridized with a biotinylated probe in liquid phase and captured on to microtiter wells coated with antidigoxigenin followed by detection with streptavidin-peroxidase. The sensitivity of this assay for the detection of hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus is equal to that of existing nucleic acid detection systems. ProCite Record Number: 6220Journal Short Form workformbD?Shin, G. A. M. D. Sobsey1998~Reduction of Norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and coliphage MS2 by free chlorine, cholorine dioxide and ozone disinfection of waterK1998 Water Quality Techonology Conference(American Water Works Association)Denver. Colorado1998ProCite Record Number: 6230)Conference Proceedings workform (20) 19986?ATess, B. H. L. C. Rodrigues M. L. Newell D. T. Dunn T. D. G. Lago1998Infant feeding and risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Sao Paulo Collaborative Study for Vertical Transmission of HIV-1189-194GJournal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology192Although vertical transmission of HIV-1 can occur through breast-feeding, little is known about the effect of colostrum, duration of breast-feeding, mixing feeding, and nipple pathology. We used retrospective cohort data to examine the association between breast-feeding-related factors and transmission of HIV-1 from mother to child in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Information on maternal and postnatal factors was collected by medical record review and interview. Infection status was determined for 434 children by anti-HIV-1 tests performed beyond 18 months of age or diagnosis of AIDS at any age. Among 168 breast-fed children, the risk of transmission of HIV-1 was 21%, compared with 13% (p = .01) among 264 children artificially fed. Breast-feeding was independently and significantly associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 after controlling for stage of maternal HIV-1 disease (odds ratio [OR] = 2.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-3.8). A trend was shown toward an increased risk of transmission with longer duration of breast-feeding, a history of bleeding nipples, and introduction of other liquid food before weaning, but these associations were not statistically significant. History of colostrum intake or cracked nipples without bleeding were not associated with transmission. Most of the women who breast-fed were unaware of their HIV-1 infection status at the time of delivery. Avoidance of mixed feeding and withholding of breast-feeding in the presence of bleeding nipples should be considered in further research as strategies to reduce postnatal transmission of HIV-1 in settings in which safe and sustainable alternatives for breast-feeding are not yet available. ProCite Record Number: 6240Journal Short Form workformQ?&Cromeans, T. H. A. Fields M. D. Sobsey1989?Replication kinetics and cytopathic effect of hepatitis A virus 2051-2062Journal of General Virology708bThe replication kinetics and c.p.e. of hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain HM-175 were shown to depend upon the passage level of the cell line, and the passage level and method of selection of the virus population. Maximum virus production under single-step growth curve conditions occurred as early as 24 to 28 h or as late as 10 days post-infection. Although rapid replication of an isolate of HM-715 (pHM-175) occurred initially in BS-C-1 cells, its most pronounced c.p.e. was induced in FRhK-4 cells. The replication kinetics of pHM-175 in BS-C-1 cells were similar to those in FRhK-4 cells, although a higher yield of virus was obtained in the latter. The HAV that generated c.p.e. in FRhK-4 cells was obtained by two different selection processes: virus passage, or cloning of large focus-forming variants from the radioimmunofocus assay. The c.p.e. and yield of infectious pHM-175 in FRhK-4 cells could be reduced by 3 mM-guanidine. Another HAV isolate, strain MD-1, isolated directly from contaminated ground water in cell culture demonstrated c.p.e. in FRhK-4 cells after passage as persistently infected A-549 cells. ProCite Record Number: 6250Journal Short Form workform?&Cromeans, T. H. A. Fields M. D. Sobsey1989`Development of a plaque assay for a cytopathic, rapidly replicating isolate of hepatitis A virus45-56Journal of Medical Virology221Most hepatitis A virus (HAV) replication in cell culture has been reported to be nonlytic and relatively slow. A rapidly replicating isolate of strain HM-175 from persistently infected, serially passed cell cultures (pHM-175) was found to induce a cytopathic effect. This observation allowed the development of a classic plaque assay for pHM-175 in FRhK-4 cells. The plaques were neutralized by polyclonal and monoclonal antisera to HAV. ProCite Record Number: 6260Journal Short Form workformB?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1993Multistate outbreak of viral gastroenteritis related to consumption of oysters-Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Carolina, 1993945-948%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report4249On November 17, 1993, the state health departments of Louisiana, Maryland, and Mississippi notified CDC of several outbreaks of gastroenteritis occurring in their states since November 12. Preliminary epidemiologic investigations identified consumption of oysters as the primary risk factor for illness. On November 16, the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals (LDHH) had identified the Grand Pass and Cabbage Reef harvesting areas off the Louisiana coast as the source of oysters associated with outbreaks in Louisiana and Mississippi. Tagged oysters associated with outbreaks in Maryland were traced to the same oyster beds. The oysters harvested from these areas had been distributed throughout the United States. On November 18 and 19, the LDHH and CDC notified state epidemiologists of the potential for oyster-associated illness; outbreaks of oyster-associated gastroenteritis subsequently were identified in Florida and North Carolina. Collaborative investigations by state health officials, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and CDC were initiated to determine the magnitude and characteristics of the multistate outbreak, identify the etiologic agent, and trace the oysters. This report summarizes the preliminary findings of the ongoing investigation. ProCite Record Number: 6260Journal Short Form workform?Sobsey, M. D. T. Cromeans1985eEffects of bentonite clay solids on poliovirus concentration from water by microporous filter methods795-798&Applied and Environmental Microbiology494zTo determine whether suspended solids interfere with enteric virus recovery from water by microporous filter methods, the effects of bentonite clay solids at a concentration of 10 nephelometric turbidity units on the recovery of poliovirus type 1 from seeded, activated carbon-treated, filtered tap water were studied. Volumes (500 ml) of virus-laden water at pH 5.5 or 7.5, with and without 50 mM MgCl2, were filtered through 47-mm-diameter, electropositive (Virosorb 1MDS) and electronegative (Filterite) filters that had been pretreated with Tween 80 to minimize direct virus adsorption to filter surfaces. Bentonite solids enhanced virus retention on both types of filters, even under conditions in which viruses were not solids associated. However, bentonite solids also interfered with elution of retained viruses when eluting with 0.3% beef extract-50 mM glycine (pH 9.5). Under some conditions, overall virus recoveries were lower from water with bentonite solids than from solids-free control water. The results of this study indicate that clay turbidity can interfere somewhat with virus recovery by current microporous filter methods. ProCite Record Number: 6270Journal Short Form workform?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1995Multistate outbreak of viral gastroenteritis associated with consumption of oysters-Apalachicola Bay, Florida, December 1994-January 199537-39%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report442On January 3, 1995, the Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) was notified of an outbreak of acute gstroenteritis associated with eating oysters. The subsequent investigation by HRS has identified 34 separate clusters of cases, many of which were associated with oysters harvested during December 29-31 from 13 Mile Area and Cat Point in Apalachicola Bay. Oysters were shipped to other states, but additional clusters of illness associated with these oysters have been reported only in Georgia. Most of these oysters were served steamed or roasted. This report summarizes the preliminary findings of the ongoing investigation of this outbreak. ProCite Record Number: 6270Journal Short Form workform? *Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1998[Viral gastroenteritis associated with eating oysters--Louisiana, December 1996-January 199710-11%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report2791Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by caliciviruses (i.e., Norwalk-like viruses or small round-structured viruses) have been associated with eating contaminated shellfish, particularly oysters (Crassostrea virginica). This report describes the findings of the investigation of an outbreak of oyster-associated viral gastroenteritis in Louisiana during the 1996-97 winter season and implicates sewage from oyster harvesting vessels as the probable cause of contaminated oysters. ProCite Record Number: 6280Journal Short Form workform? Scandura, J. E. M. D. Sobsey1997VViral and bacterial contamination of groundwater from on-site sewage treatment systems141-146Water Science and Technology3511-12=(Original) Septage, soil, viruses, groundwater, contaminationGOn-site septic tank-soil absorption systems treating domestic wastewater have contaminated groundwaters with enteric viruses and other pathogens and caused drinking waterborne outbreaks. The factors influencing pathogen transport, survival and fate at on-site wastewater treatment systems remain inadequately characterised. We studied the survival and transport of a model enterovirus (BE-I) and faecal coliform bacteria in four on-site wastewater treatment systems (three conventional and one low pressure, small pipe diameter, pumped system) located in sandy soils typic:al of the coastal plains. Septic system wastewaters were seeded seasonally with known amounts of BE-I and the fate of BE-1, faecal coliforms and other wastewater constituents were followed for three months in seeded wastewaters and groundwaters of drainfield monitoring wells. BE-I levels in seeded wastewaters declined exponentially by kinetics consistent with a 3d hydraulic residence time. BE-I was detected in ground waters of monitoring wells as early as Id after seeding and persisted up to two months. Virus detection in ground water was greater in winter than in summer and was positively associated with proximity to septic effluent distribution lines, drainfield soils with the lowest clay content, elevated ground water pH and shallower vadose zones. Viruses were not strongly associated with either distance from septic tank or faecal coliform levels in groundwater. Under optimum conditions, virus reductions were as high as 9 log(10), but in systems with the most coarse (sand) soils and highest water tables (most shallow vadose zones), there was extensive ground water contamination by viruses and other wastewater constituents. Under some conditions, septic systems in sandy coastal plains soils can contaminate ground water with viruses and other wastewater constituents. ProCite Record Number: 6290Journal Short Form workform&? ?Paul, J. H. J. B. Rose S. C. jiang P. London X. Xhou C. Kellogg1997:Coliphage and indigenous phage in Mamala Bay, Oahu, Hawaii133-138&Applied and Environmental Microbiology631Public concern over the discharge of primarily treated sewage by two offshore outfalls in Mamala Bay, Oahu, prompted a multidisciplinary study to determine the impact of such activities on the water quality in the bay and at adjacent recreational beaches. As part of this study, we determined the abundance of coliphage as an indicator of fecal pollution along with total viral direct counts and phages infective for Vibrio parahaemoltyicus 16 at stations in Mamala Bay in four quarterly samplings over 13 months. Coliphage (< 1 to 1.2 x 10(3)/liter) were found during each quarterly sampling along an offshore transect to the Sand Island waste treatment facility outfall. The nonpoint coastal stations (Pearl Harbor, Ala Wai Canal, and Ke'ehi Lagoon) had high levels of coliphage during the storm event sampling in February 1994 but much lower levels or none when sampled during dry weather. Coliphage were absent at all samplings at Waikiki Beach and at the control station off Diamond Head. Viral direct counts in eutrophic coastal stations (Pearl Harbor, Ke'ehi Lagoon, Ala Moana Beach, and Ala Wai canal) averaged 10(9)/liter, while counts at offshore stations ranged from 9 x 10(7) to 1 x 10(9) viruses/liter, values similar to those for other marine environments. Vibriophage were found mainly in eutrophic coastal environments (Ala Wai Canal, Pearl Harbor, and Ke'ehi Lagoon) and at the Sand Island Transect stations D1 and D2. The greatest abundance was found during the storm event (February 1994) sampling. These results suggest that the Sand Island outfall influenced the water quality of the immediate surrounding waters but had little effect on the quality of the recreational beaches. Nonpoint discharge sources appeared to be more important in the distribution of fecal indicators in the coastal zone. ProCite Record Number: 6290Journal Short Form workform-? Courtney, M. G. M. O'Mahoney S. Albloushi S. Sachithanandan J. Walshe M. Carmody J. Donoghue N. Parfrey A. G. Shattock J. Fielding1994%Hepatitis E virus antibody prevalence1166Lancet3448930ProCite Record Number: 63000Journal Short Form workform (42) Letter, comment?Sunen, E. M. D. Sobsey1999Recovery and detection of enterovirus, hepatitis A virus and Norwalk virus in hardshell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) by RT-PCR methods179-187Journal of Virological Methods772 (Original) clams, PCR, antibody capture, nucleic acid extraction, enterovirus, hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus, polymerase chain-reaction, reverse transcription-PCR, human enteric viruses, environmental-samples, oysters, shellfish, hybridization, RNA, purificationA method for recovery of enteric viruses from hardshell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) has been developed and evaluated. Seeded 59-9 samples of clam tissue homogenates were processed by adsorption-elution-precipitation, two fluorocarbon extractions and PEG precipitation. Clam concentrates were assayed by infectivity and by RT-PCR after guanidinium isothiocyanate (GIT) extraction and/or an indirect immunomagnetic capture (IC) of the virus using paramagnetic beads. GIT extraction removed PCR inhibitors and allowed a reliable RT-PCR detection of viral RNA. The detection sensitivity of GIT extraction-RT-PCR was < 1 PFU of poliovirus I, < 10 PFU of HAV and 1-11 PCRU of Norwalk virus. IC was very effective for additional concentration and purification of enteric Viruses from clam concentrates removing most RT-PCR inhibitors. The sensitivity of this method was comparable to the GIT extraction and the sample volume tolerance for PCR was increased about 10-fold. Both methods gave similar efficiency for virus detection in samples seeded with low virus levels. The procedure developed in this study is effective for enteric viruses detection in hardshell clams by RT-PCR. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.ProCite Record Number: 6310Journal Short Form workform6G?.Fields, B. N. D. M. Knipe P. M. Howley, et al.1996Fields Virology609-6541Picornaviridae: the viruses and their replicationRueckert, R. R. Philadephia(Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadephia Third EditionProCite Record Number: 6310%Book Chapter workform (08) Chapter 21? Cliver, D. O.1993"Food- and water-associated viruses627-634 Food SafetyNFood virology, water and soil virology, viral hepatitis, viral gastroenteritisProCite Record Number: 6320)Journal Short Form workform (42) appendixp?Meschke, J. S. M. D. Sobsey1998wComparative adsorption of Norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and F+ RNA coliphage MS2 to soils suspended in treated wastewater187-189Water Science and Technology3812x(Original) Adsorption, coliphage, Norwalk virus, poliovirus, soil, tertiary wastewater, hepatitis-A virus, enterovirusesEnteric viruses such as Norwalk virus (NV) are important agents of waterborne disease from faecally contaminated groundwater. Viruses are more resistant to inactivation than most enteric bacteria and they may not be removed efficiently during land application. Adsorption is one of the major factors in viral removal and persistence in soils. The adsorption of NV by soils suspended in wastewater has not been determined. Therefore, we determined the adsorption of NV to six soils (Cecil clay-loam, Corolla sand, Georgia Kaolinite (clay), Wyoming Bentonite (clay), Ponzer organic muck and Flushing Meadows sand-loam) suspended in treated wastewater and compared it to that of poliovirus 1 (PV1) (strongly adsorbed) and MS2 (weakly adsorbed). NV is shown to be less sorptive than PV1 and more sorptive than MS2. Furthermore, relative virus adsorption among soils was similar for all three enteric viruses with viruses most adsorbed by clays and least adsorbed by sand and organic soils.ProCite Record Number: 6330Journal Short Form workform?Hill, V. R. M. D. Sobsey1998TMicrobial indicator reductions in alternative treatment systems for swine wastewater119-122Water Science and Technology3812(Original) Swine wastewater treatment, microbial indicators, faecal coliforms, coliphages, anaerobic lagoons, constructed wetlands, RNA coliphagesfBacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens in swine wastes are of public health concern because many are able to infect humans. Hence, treatment processes must be effective in removing or destroying these microbes before wastewater discharge. Primary treatment by anaerobic lagoon is the current best management practice (BMP) for swine wastewater in the USA but alternative processes were also investigated for their potential to improve treatment. Wastewater samples were collected approximately monthly from March-December 1997 at a North Carolina swine nursery. Geometric mean concentrations for bacterial indicators (faecal coliforms, E coli, enterococci and C perfringens spores) in lagoon effluent were 3.3x10(5), 2.8x10(5), 3.4x10(5) and 2.2x10(4) CFU/100mL respectively. For somatic and male-specific coliphages they were 1.4x10(5) and 5.0x10(3) PFU/100mL respectively. Bacterial indicator levels in swine lagoon effluents are much higher than allowed for municipal wastewater effluents discharged to land or water. The anaerobic lagoon achieved reductions of 1.1-2.2 log(10) for all indicators except C perfringens spores (0.2 log(10)). Of the secondary treatment processes, constructed wetlands achieved the best indicator microbe reductions ranging from 1.1-2.5 log(10) A media filter and an overland flow system achieved mean indicator reductions of only 0.2-1.2 and 0.2-0.8 log(10), respectively. The results indicate that a primary-secondary treatment system, an anaerobic lagoon and constructed wetlands, can achieve reductions of 2.9-4.8 log(10) for bacterial and viral indicators and 1.5 log(10) for C perfringens spores. ProCite Record Number: 6350Journal Short Form workform?Shin, G. A. M. D. Sobsey1998bReduction of norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and coliphage MS2 by monochloramine disinfection of water151-154Water Science and Technology3812w(Original) Infectivity assay, monochloramine disinfection, MS2, Norwalk virus, poliovirus 1, RT-PCR assay, inactivationeThe reduction of Norwalk virus (NV) by a 2 mg/L dose of pre-formed monochloramine was determined at pH 8 and 5 degrees C in bench-scale, batch disinfection experiments using quantitative RT-PCR for NV assays. Two other enteric viruses, poliovirus 1 (PV1) and coliphage MS2, were Included for comparison and assayed by infectivity as well as RT-PCR. After 3 h, reductions of PV1 and MS2 by infectivity assays were about 1 log(10) but there were no reductions of these viruses by RT-PCR assays. Hence, RT-PCR underestimated virus inactivation by monochloramine. However, NV reduction by monochloramine was about 1 log(10) by RT-PCR assay, suggesting that it is more susceptible to monochloramine than the other two viruses tested. Based on RT-PCR titre reduction, the CT99 value for NV was about 775 mg-min/L. If the reduction of NV infectivity by monochloramine is ever greater than the reduction of RT-PCR signals, the CT99 value would be smaller. However, the results of this study indicate that NV and the other enteric viruses tested are not rapidly and extensively reduced by disinfection with pre formed monochloramine. ProCite Record Number: 6360Journal Short Form workformQ? Flehmig, B.1980Hepatitis A virus in cell culture: 1. Propagation of different hepatitis A isolates in a foetal rhesus monkey kidney cell line (FRhK-4)239-248#Medical Microbiology and Immunology168ProCite Record Number: 6370OJournal Short Form workform (42) "borrowed" bibliographic information -- verify!?2Fleming, B. Billing A. Vallbracht A. Botzenhart K.1985;Inactivation of hepatitis A vikrus by heat and formaldehyde43-45Water Science and Technology17ProCite Record Number: 6380OJournal Short Form workform (42) "borrowed" bibliographic information -- verifyM?YBrugha, R Vipond, IB Evans, MR Sandifer, QD Roberts, RJ Salmon, RL Caul, EO Mukerjee, AK.1999w A community outbreak of food-borne small round-structured virus gastroenteritis caused by a contaminated water supply.145-54Epidemiology and Infection1221In August 1994, 30 of 135 (23%) bakery plant employees and over 100 people from South Wales and Bristol in the United Kingdom, were affected by an outbreak of gastroenteritis. Epidemiological studies of employees and three community clusters found illness in employees to be associated with drinking cold water at the bakery (relative risk 3.3, 95%, CI 1.6-7.0), and in community cases with eating custard slices (relative risk 19.8, 95%, CI 2.9-135.1) from a variety of stores supplied by one particular bakery. Small round-structured viruses (SRSV) were identified in stool specimens from 4 employees and 7 community cases. Analysis of the polymerase and capsid regions of the SRSV genome by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) demonstrated viruses of both genogroups (1 and 2) each with several different nucleotide sequences. The heterogeneity of the viruses identified in the outbreak suggests that dried custard mix may have been inadvertently reconstituted with contaminated water. The incident shows how secondary food contamination can cause wide-scale community gastroenteritis outbreaks, and demonstrates the ability of molecular techniques to support classical epidemiological methods in outbreak investigations.ProCite Record Number: 6420 UI: 99196434%Journal Article workform (35) English ?pMarx, A Shay, DK Noel, JS Brage, C Bresee, JS Lipsky, S Monroe, SS Ando, T Humphrey, CD Alexander, ER Glass, RI.1999An outbreak of acute gastroenteritis in a geriatric long-term-care facility: combined application of epidemiological and molecular diagnostic methods.306-11,Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology,205+OBJECTIVE: To assess possible transmission modes of, and risk factors for, gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs) in a geriatric long-term-care facility. METHODS: During a prolonged outbreak of acute gastroenteritis, epidemiological data on illness among residents and employees were collected in conjunction with stool, vomitus, and environmental specimens for viral testing. NLVs were identified by electron microscopy in stool and vomitus specimens, and further characterized by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and nucleotide sequencing. Potential risk factors were examined through medical-record review, personal interview, and a self-administered questionnaire sent to all employees. RESULTS: During the outbreak period, 52 (57%) of 91 residents and 34 (35%) of 90 employees developed acute gastroenteritis. Four case-residents were hospitalized; three residents died at the facility shortly after onset of illness. A point source was not identified; no association between food or water consumption and gastroenteritis was identified. A single NLV strain genetically related to Toronto virus was the only pathogen identified. Residents were at significantly higher risk of gastroenteritis if they were physically debilitated (relative risk [RR], 3.5; 95% confidence interval [CI95], 1.0-12.9), as were employees exposed to residents with acute gastroenteritis (RR, 2.6; CI95, 1.1-6.5) or ill household members (RR, 2.3; CI95, 1.4-3.6). Adherence to infection control measures among the nursing staff may have reduced the risk of gastroenteritis, but the reduction did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of evidence for food-borne or waterborne transmission, NLVs likely spread among residents and employees of a long-term-care facility through person-to-person or airborne droplet transmission. Rapid notification of local health officials, collection of clinical specimens, and institution of infection control measures are necessary if viral gastroenteritis transmission is to be limited in institutional settings.ProCite Record Number: 6440 UI:99277448%Journal Article workform (35) EnglishUCD MedCtr W1 IN358MCA?DBlackmer, Felisa Reynolds, Kelly A. Gerba, Charles P. Pepper, Ian L.2000iUse of Integrated Cell Culture-PCR To Evaluate the Effectiveness of Poliovirus Inactivation by Chlorine 2267-2268(Applied and Environmental Microbiology 665ProCite Record Number: 6460Journal Short Form workform?Thurman, R. B. Gerba, C. P.1988AMolecular Mechanisms of Viral Inactivation by Water Disinfectants75-105 Advances in Applied Microbiology33ProCite Record Number: 6470Journal Short Form workformT? ,Wellings, F. M. Mountain, C. W. Lewis, A. L.Virus in groundwater;National Conference on Individual Onsite Wastewater SystemsMcClelland, Nina I.!Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc.1975ProCite Record Number: 6530Conference Proceedings workform (02) Administrator; Directors (08) Vice President, Technical Services National Sanitation Foundation (18) Mich. (20) 1977 (21) 1977|72Wang, Y. Zhang, H. Ling, R. Li, H. Harrison, T. J.2000The complete sequence of hepatitis E virus genotype 4 reveals an alternative strategy for translation of open reading frames 2 and 31675-86 J Gen Virol81Pt 7Adult Amino Acid Sequence Base Sequence Genome, Viral Genotype Hepatitis E/diagnosis Hepatitis E virus/classification/*genetics Humans Male Molecular Sequence Data *Protein BiosynthesisJulFIsolates of hepatitis E virus (HEV) have recently been described from China that are distinct from Burmese, Mexican and US viruses and constitute a novel genotype (genotype 4). Here, the complete genomic sequence of a representative isolate of genotype 4 HEV, amplified directly from the stool of an acutely infected patient, is presented. Analysis of the entire sequence confirms our previous conclusion, based upon partial sequence data, that these Chinese isolates belong to a novel genotype. Typical of genetic variation in HEV, most nucleotide substitutions occur in the third base of the codon and do not affect the amino acid sequence. The genotype 4 virus is unusual in that a single nucleotide insertion in the ORF 3 region changes the initiation of ORF 3, and perhaps also ORF 2. The consequences of these changes are discussed.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=10859372Wang, Y Zhang, H Ling, R Li, H Harrison, T J Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't England The Journal of general virology J Gen Virol. 2000 Jul;81(Pt 7):1675-86.0022-1317 (Print)10859372Department of Medicine, Royal Free and University College Medical School, University College London, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London NW3 2PF, UK.eng}?#Kabrane-Lazizi, Yamina Fine, Joshua B. Elm, Joe Glass, Gregory E. Higa, Harry Diwan, Arwind Gibbs, Clarence J. Jr Meng, Siang-Jin Emerson, Suzanne U. Purcell, Robert H.1999ZEvidence for widespread infection of wild rats with Hepatitis E virus in the United States331-335Am. J. Trop. Med.612ProCite Record Number: 6560Journal Short Form workform t7 UHuang, Y. W. Haqshenas, G. Kasorndorkbua, C. Halbur, P. G. Emerson, S. U. Meng, X. J.2005Capped RNA transcripts of full-length cDNA clones of swine hepatitis E virus are replication competent when transfected into Huh7 cells and infectious when intrahepatically inoculated into pigs1552-8J Virol793Animals Cell Line, Tumor Cloning, Molecular DNA, Complementary/genetics/*metabolism Hepatitis E/*veterinary Hepatitis E virus/genetics/*pathogenicity/physiology Hepatitis, Viral, Animal/virology Humans Liver/virology Molecular Sequence Data RNA Caps/*genetics/metabolism RNA, Viral/genetics/metabolism Sequence Analysis, DNA Swine/*virology Swine Diseases/virology Transcription, Genetic Transfection *Virus ReplicationFebSwine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV), the first animal strain of HEV to be isolated, is a zoonotic agent. We report here the construction and in vitro and in vivo characterizations of infectious cDNA clones of swine HEV. Eight overlapping fragments spanning the entire genome were amplified by reverse transcription-PCR and assembled into a full-length cDNA clone, clone C, which contained 14 mutations compared to the consensus sequence of swine HEV. RNA transcripts from clone C were not infectious, as determined by intrahepatic inoculation into pigs and by in vitro transfection of Huh7 cells. Multiple site-based site-directed mutagenesis was performed to generate three new cDNA clones (pSHEV-1, pSHEV-2, and pSHEV-3) which differed from each other. The transfection of capped RNA transcripts into human liver Huh7 cells resulted in the synthesis of both ORF2 capsid and ORF3 proteins, indicating that the cDNA clones were replication competent. Each of the three clones resulted in active swine HEV infections after the intrahepatic inoculation of pigs with capped RNA transcripts. The patterns of seroconversion, viremia, and fecal virus shedding for pigs inoculated with RNA transcripts from clones pSHEV-2 and pSHEV-3 were similar to each other and to those for pigs inoculated with wild-type swine HEV, suggesting that the nucleotide differences between these two cDNA clones were not critical for replication. Pigs inoculated with RNA transcripts from clone pSHEV-1, which contained three nonsilent mutations in the ORF2 capsid gene, had a delayed appearance of seroconversion and fecal virus shedding and had undetectable viremia. The availability of these infectious cDNA clones affords us an opportunity to understand the mechanisms of cross-species infection by constructing chimeric human and swine HEVs.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=156501818Huang, Y W Haqshenas, G Kasorndorkbua, C Halbur, P G Emerson, S U Meng, X J AI01653/AI/United States NIAID AI46505/AI/United States NIAID AI50611/AI/United States NIAID Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United States Journal of virology J Virol. 2005 Feb;79(3):1552-8.0022-538X (Print)54408915650181Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1410 Price's Fork Rd., Blacksburg, VA 24061-0342, USA./79/3/1552 [pii] 10.1128/JVI.79.3.1552-1558.2005eng?( Sobsey, M D1989PInactivation of Health-Related Microorganisms in Water by Disinfection Processes179-196Water Science and Technology213Campylobacter-Jejuni Yersinia-Enterocolitica Mycobacterium-Spp/Legionella-Spp Pseudomonas-Spp Giardia-Lamblia/Cryptosporidium-Spp Acanthamoeba-Spp Naegleria-Spp Human/Coliphage Hepatitis A Virus Rotavirus Norwalk Virus Wastewater/TreatmentProCite Record Number: 6610Journal Short Form workform?*Arness, MK Feighner BH Canham ML Taylor DN Monroe SS Cieslak TJ Hoedebecke EL Polyak CS Cuthie JC Fankhauser RL Humphrey CD Barker TL Jenkins CD Skillman DR2000BNorwalk-like viral gastroenteritis outbreak in U.S. Army trainees.204-7Emerging Infectious Diseases662XAn outbreak of acute gastroenteritis hospitalized 99 (12%) of 835 U. S. Army trainees at Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas, from August 27 to September 1, 1998. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction tests for Norwalk-like virus were positive for genogroup 2. Gastroenteritis was associated with one post dining facility and with soft drinks.ProCite Record Number: 6630Journal Short Form workformUCD HealthSci W1 EM394?,Burkhardt, W 3rd Calci KR2000JSelective accumulation may account for shellfish-associated viral illness.1375-8&Applied and Environmental Microbiology664From 1991 through 1998, 1,266 cases of shellfish-related illnesses were attributed to Norwalk-like viruses. Seventy-eight percent of these illnesses occurred following consumption of oysters harvested from the Gulf Coast during the months of November through January. This study investigated the ability of eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) to accumulate indicator microorganisms (i.e., fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, and F(+) coliphage) from estuarine water. One-week trials over a 1-year period were used to determine if these indicator organisms could provide insight into the seasonal occurrence of these gastrointestinal illnesses. The results demonstrate that oysters preferentially accumulated F(+) coliphage, an enteric viral surrogate, to their greatest levels from late November through January, with a concentration factor of up to 99-fold. However, similar increases in accumulation of the other indicator microorganisms were not observed. These findings suggest that the seasonal occurrence of shellfish-related illnesses by enteric viruses is, in part, the result of seasonal physiological changes undergone by the oysters that affect their ability to accumulate viral particles from estuarine waters.ProCite Record Number: 6650Journal Short Form workformUCD Shields QR1 A85?-Hoyt, J. L. Margolin, A. B.20007Fortified sera and their use in environmental virology.2259-62&Applied and Environmental Microbiology665Four commercially available fortified sera were compared to fetal bovine serum (FBS) with regard to their ability to maintain or increase the sensitivity of the Buffalo green monkey (BGM) kidney cell line to viral infection. Nine virus strains and five wastewater samples were used. Fortified sera were comparable to FBS for the enumeration of some viruses by the plaque method and for the detection of virus in wastewater by the most-probable-number assay.ProCite Record Number: 6660Journal Short Form workformUCD Shields QR1 A85?Nupen, E. Bateman, B.W.1985cThe recovery of viruses from drinking water by means of an in-line electropositive cartridge filter63-69Wat. Sci. Technol.17 Tgenetic relationships between human enteroviruses and to develop new diagnostic approaches, we designed a pair of generic primers in order to study a 1452 bp genomic fragment (relative to the poliovirus Mahoney genome), including the 3' end of the VP1-coding region, the 2A- and 2B-coding regions, and the 5' moiety of the 2C-coding region. Fifty-nine of the 64 prototype strains and 45 field isolates of various origins, involving 21 serotypes and 6 strains untypable by standard immunological techniques, were successfully amplified with these primers. By determining the nucleotide sequence of the genomic fragment encoding the C-terminal third of the VP1 capsid protein we developed a molecular typing method based on RT-PCR and sequencing. If field isolate sequences were compared to human enterovirus VP1 sequences available in databases, nucleotide identity score was, in each case, highest with the homotypic prototype (74.8 to 89.4%). Phylogenetic trees wea?5*Reynolds, K. S. Gerba, C. P. Pepper, I. L.1997HRapid PCR-based monitoring of infectious enteroviruses in drinking water423-427Water Science and Technology3511-12GCurrently, the standard method for the detection of enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus in water involves cell culture assay which is expensive and time consuming. Direct RT-PCR offers a rapid and sensitive alternative to virus detection but sensitivity is often reduced by PCR inhibitory substances and the requirement for small reaction volumes. Rapid methods for detection of infectious enteroviruses in PCR inhibitory environmental samples are being developed utilizing an integrated cell culture/PCR approach (ICC/PCR). With this approach, 300-4001 of water were concentrated using charged filters followed by a modified 11, 1.5% BEV/glycine elution and organic flocculation reconcentration. Water concentrates were analysed by direct RT-PCR. conventional cell culture and ICC/PCR. For ICC/PCR, sample concentrates were incubated with BGM or FRhK cells for 24-48h. The cell culture lysates were collected following freeze-thaw cycles, centrifuged, resin column purified and PCR amplified. In this study viruses known to be present by cell culture analysis could not be detected by direct PCR. Using the integrated method, virus concentrations as low as 0.001 MPN/l of original water were detected in samples which were previously inhibitory to direct PCR. In addition, confirmed enterovirus results were achieved as soon as 48h against 5-16d with cell culture alone. Therefore, the integrated approach overcame some of the traditional problems associated with conventional cell culture and direct RT-PCR by allowing rapid, confirmed detection of low levels of enteroviruses in PCR inhibitory samples.ProCite Record Number: 6740Journal Short Form workformUCD PhySciEng TD424.5 P7?6Richards, G P.1985pOutbreaks of Shellfish-Associated Enteric Virus Illness in the Usa Requisite for Development of Viral Guidelines815-823Journal of Food Protection489ProCite Record Number: 6750Journal Short Form workformUC Healt Sci W1J512?7AGuyader, F. Le Haugarreau, L. Miossec, L. Dubois, E. Pommepuy, M.2000<Three-year study to assess human enteric virusesin shellfish 3241-3248&Applied and environmental Microbiology668The main pathogenic enteric viruses able to persist in the environment, such as hepatitis A virus (HAV), Norwalk-like virus (NLV), enterovirus (EV), rotavirus (RV), and astrovirus (AV), were detected by reverse transcription-PCR and hybridization in shellfish during a 3-year study. Oyster samples (n=108), occasionally containing bacteria, were less frequently contaminated, showing positivity for AV (17%), HAV (13%), NLV (35%), EV (45%), and RV(52%). Sequences obtained from HAV and NLV amplicons showed a great variety of strains, especially for NLV (strains close to Mexico, Snow Mountain Agent, or Norwalk virus). Viral contamination was mainly observed during winter months, although trere were some seasonal differences among the viruses. The first stydy of virus detection over a fairly long period of time suggests that routine analysis of shellfish by a molecular technique is feasible.ProCite Record Number: 6760Journal Short Form workformq|7ZAppleton, H. Pereira, M. S.1977FA possible virus aetiology in outbreaks of food-poisoning from cockles780-1Lancet18015Cesium/diagnostic use Disease Outbreaks/*epidemiology England Feces/microbiology Food Poisoning/*etiology/microbiology Humans Microscopy, Electron Mollusca/*microbiology Shellfish/*poisoning Viruses, Unclassified/isolation & purificationApr 9In a series of outbreaks of food-poisoning associated with the consumption of cockles, no bacterial pathogens were demonstrable either in faeces of patients or in cockles. However, small round virus-like particles have been detected in a high proportion of the faecal specimens in three of the outbreaks. These particles are similar in size, morphological features and density to particles seen in outbreaks of winter vomiting and non-bacterial gastroenteritis although in preliminary tests they are serologically distinctive.bhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=66573IAppleton, H Pereira, M S England Lancet Lancet. 1977 Apr 9;1(8015):780-1.0140-6736 (Print)66573eng?=HAtmar, Robert L. Metcalf, Theodore G. Neill, Frederick H. Estes, Mary K.1993NDetection of enteric viruses in oysters by using the polymerase chain reaction631-635&Applied and Environmental Microbiology592Animal Viruses-General Picornaviridae (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Enzymes--Methods) (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--General; Methods) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Animate) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Public Health: Microbiology) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) (Invertebrata, Comparative and Experimental Morphology, Physiology and Pathology--Mollusca) microorganisms viruses Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Precipitation Method Organic Flocculation Polyethylene Glycol Precipitation Reverse Transcriptase=polymerase Inhibitor RemovalA procedure for the detection of enteric viral nucleic acid in oysters by the polymerase chain reaction was developed. Known quantities of poliovirus type 1 were seeded into oysters. Virus was extracted and concentrated by using organic flocculation and polyethylene glycol precipitation. Inhibitors of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction were present in the oyster extracts, preventing amplification of target viral nucleic acid. The use of cetylrimethylammonium bromide precipitation sufficiently removed inhibitors to allow detection of as few as 10 PFU of poliovirus. Norwalk virus also could be detected after being seeded into oysters. This methodology may be useful for the detection of these and other shellfish-borne viral pathogens.177480?>=Beekwilder, J. Nieuwenhuizen, R. Havelaar, A. H. Van Duin, J.1996wAn oligonucleotide hybridization assay for the identification and enumeration of F-specific RNA phages in surface water179-186Journal of Applied Bacteriology802Animal Viruses-General Bacterial Viruses-General (Methods, Materials and Apparatus, General--Laboratory Methods) (Methods, Materials and Apparatus, General--Field Methods) (Evolution) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography and Limnology) (Biochemistry--Comparative Biochemistry, General) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Bacteriophage) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Bacteriology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Public Health: Microbiology) microorganisms viruses Contamination Methods Oligonucleotide Probes Phylogenetic Subgroups Sewage Treatment Effectiveness Waste Disposal Wastewater Treatment Water PollutionF-specific RNA phages can be used as model organisms for enteric viruses to monitor the effectiveness of sewage treatment, and to assess the potential contamination of surface water with these viruses. In this paper a method is described which identifies RNA phages quantitatively by a plaque hybridization assay. Oligonucleotide probes were developed that can assign phages to their phylogenetic subgroups. Such a distinction is important, since some subgroups preferentially occur in sewage of human origin, while others tend to be associated with animal wastewater. The method has been tested on a large number of isolates and represents an improvement in time and reliability over the previously used serological classification.22461478~??kBerke, Tamas Golding, Brian Jiang, Xi Cubitt, David W. Wolfaardt, Marianne Smith, Alvin W. Matson, David O.1997*Phylogenetic analysis of the caliciviruses419-424Journal of Medical Virology524Caliciviridae (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Amino Acid Sequences Analytical Method Genetics Nucleotide Sequences Pathogen Phylogenetic Analysis Phylogenetic Tree Strain-Hepatitis E-Like Strain-Saporo-like Strain-Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Virus-Like VirologyA phylogenetic portrait of the genus Calicivirus in the family Caliciviridae was developed based upon published sequences and newly characterized calicivirus (CV) strains, including additional Sapporo-like HuCV strains in pediatric diarrhea stool specimens from South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Distance and parsimony methods were applied to nucleotide and amino acid sequences of human and animal calicivirus 3D RNA-dependent RNA polymerase ( approximates 470nt) and capsid hypervariable regions ( approximates 1,200nt) to generate phylogenetic trees. Pairwise amino acid identity in the 3D region among the Sapporo-like strains ranged from 61% to 100%. Human and animal caliciviruses (HuCVs and AnCVs) separated into five genogroups: small round-structured viruses (SRSV), Sapporo-like, and hepatitis E virus (HEV)-like HuCVs and rabbit-, and vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV)-like AnCVs, each with a distinct genome organization. Each genogroup, including the Sapporo-like HuCVs, subdivided further into subgenogroups. The capsid region trees had higher levels of confidence than the 3D region trees and limited conclusions about genogroups could be drawn from the 3D region analyses. This analysis suggested that CVs include five potential virus subfamilies.http://mddb.wiley.com/db/mdresolve.cgi?issn=0146-6615&volume=52&issue=4&first*page=419 http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0146-6615Access restricted.3398480~?@/Boher, S. Beril, C. Terver, D. Schwartzbrod, L.1991PComparison of Two Methods for the Recovery of Rotavirus from Mussels and Oysters423-426Water Science and Technology242%Animal Viruses-Unspecified (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Microbiology) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) Viruses Virus Microorganism Shellfish Food Products Food Contamination PollutionCONFERENCE LITERATURE3489968X?A-Botero, Ligia Montiel, Marynes Porto, Leticia1996AEnteroviruses in shrimp harvested from contaminated marine waters103-1086International Journal of Environmental Health Research62Picornaviridae Malacostraca (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography) (Toxicology--Environmental and Industrial Toxicology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Invertebrata, Comparative and Experimental Morphology, Physiology and Pathology--Mollusca) animals arthropods chordates crustaceans humans invertebrates mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Infection Lake Maracaibo Marine Shrimp Marine Water Contamination Poliovirus 2 Pollution]Marine shrimp (genus Penaeus) live primarily in tropical and subtropical coastal locations, sometimes contaminated by domestic sewage. However, sanitary quality and importance of shrimp as a potential vehicle for enteric disease transmission have not been reported previously. The shrimp Penaeus schmitti were either collected directly from Lake Maracaibo, in western Venezuela, or obtained from local seafood outlets. Of a total of 33 pooled samples, 16 (49%) yielded virus. Six types of enteroviruses were isolated during this study: polioviruses 1 and 2, and echovirus types 20, 21, 27, and 29. Viruses not typeable with the pools of specific antiserum used during this study were isolated from seven samples. Analysis of the results indicate that enteroviruses may be present in shrimp populations present in sewage-contaminated marine and estuarine waters.2595004h?B8Callahan, Kathleen M. Taylor, Douglas J. Sobsey, Mark D.1995oComparative survival of hepatitis A virus, poliovirus and indicator viruses in geographically diverse seawaters189-193Water Science and Technology315-6hBacterial Viruses-General Enterobacteriaceae (General Biology--Conservation, Resource Management) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography and Limnology) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Bacteriophage) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Bacteriology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) animals bacteria chordates eubacteria humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Bathing Shell Fishing F-Specific Coliphages Human Disease Vector Pollution Surfing1845658~?CCarter, M. J. Willcocks, M. M.1996%The molecular biology of astroviruses277-285Archives of Virology Supplement012Animal Viruses-General (Replication, Transcription, Translation) (Enzymes--Physiological Studies) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Biochemistry and Biophysics Molecular Biology Non-Structural Proteins Ribosomal Frameshifting Rna Polymerase Serine Protease Viral ReplicationRAstroviruses (genus Astrovirus) are assigned to a newly established virus family, the Astroviridae. The molecular biology of these agents reveals many features unique amongst the non-enveloped animal viruses and resembles that of members of certain plant virus families. In particular, their possession of a serine protease and use of ribosomal frameshifting to express the RNA polymerase are similar to the luteoviruses. Many aspects of the astrovirus replication strategy are still unclear, but replication may involve a nuclear step and non-structural proteins may influence host cell range.; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA2953892??GCaul, E. O. Appleton, H.1982The electron microscopical and physical characteristics of small round human fecal viruses: an interim scheme for classification257-65Journal of Medical Virology94Astrovirus classification Caliciviridae classification Centrifugation, Density Gradient Enterovirus classification Feces microbiology Human Microscopy, Electron Norwalk Virus classification Parvoviridae classification Viruses classification Viruses ultrastructureMany of the small round human fecal viruses implicated in outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis have been collected together and examined under the electron microscope. Negatively stained preparations without the addition of antibody were used so that the surface morphology of the virus particles remained clearly visible. It was apparent that several viruses, previously thought to be simply antigenic variants within the Norwalk group of viruses, show distinct morphological differences and quite clearly belong to other virus groups. By comparing the features of all the viruses examined in this study, both with each other and with standard cell culture strains of enterovirus, parvovirus, and calicivirus, it has been possible to propose an interim classification scheme, based primarily on the morphological appearance of the particles and supported by estimations of size and buoyant density. J Med Virol10527114?H"Chalmers, J. W. T. McMillan, J. H.1995PAn outbreak of viral gastroenteritis associated with adequately prepared oysters163-167Epidemiology and Infection1151wAnimal Viruses-General (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Nutrition--Pathogenic Diets) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Toxicology--Foods, Food Residues, Additives and Preservatives) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Epidemiology Food Poisoning Inadequate Consumer Protection Virus Contaminated FoodOver Christmas 1993, an outbreak of food poisoning occurred among guests in a hotel in South West Scotland. Evidence from a cohort study strongly suggested that raw oysters were the vehicle for infection, probably due to a Small Round Structured Virus (SRSV). Detailed enquiry about the source and preparation of the oysters revealed no evidence of any unsafe handling at any stage in the food chain, nor any evidence of bacterial contamination. It is suggested that the present standards of preparation and monitoring are inadequate to protect the consumer, and that bacteriophage monitoring may be a useful method of screening for viral contamination in future.1870026?ICChristensen, B. F. Lees, D. Henshilwood, K. Bjergskov, T. Green, J.1998bHuman enteric viruses in oysters causing a large outbreak of human food borne infection in 1996/97 1633-1635Journal of Shellfish Research175Viruses-General (Food Technology--General; Methods) (Toxicology--General; Methods and Experimental) (Virology--General; Methods) (Invertebrata, Comparative and Experimental Morphology, Physiology and Pathology--Mollusca) Viruses Food Borne Infection Oysters: FoodDuring the New Year of 1996/97, more than 350 persons in Denmark became ill from consumption of imported oysters. The main symptoms were vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever, commencing 12 to 48 hrs after consumption. In addition, a number of the diseased persons reported secondary symptoms, such as aching joints, skin numbness, and visual disturbances, commencing 24 h after onset of the primary symptoms. In general, recovery from both the primary and, in particular, the secondary symptoms was slow. Only 3/24 (12%) of the analyzed samples of infected oysters showed an E. coli level above the allowed regulatory limit. A small amount of domoic acid was found in 4/9 (44%) of analyzed samples. Small round-structured virus (SRSV) and enterovirus were identified from both oyster and fecal samples, using RT-PCR. Enterovirus isolated from individual fecal samples showed sequence identity of 3 PCR amplicons, suggesting a common source of infection. The identity of the enterovirus is still under investigation. The characteristic clinical symptoms and RT-PCR results implicate SRSVs as the cause of the primary symptoms. However, the cause of the secondary symptoms is currently unclear. Although the detection of enterovirus in both fecal samples and oysters is significant, the incubation period prior to onset of secondary symptoms was not typical of an enterovirus infection. The significance of the domoic acid in relation to the outbreak is unclear.4574030-?J(Cole, M. T. Kilgen, M. B. Hackney, C. R.1986jEvaluation of methods for extraction of enteric virus from Louisiana [USA] oysters [Crassostrea virginica]592-595Journal of Food Protection498Picornaviridae Enterobacteriaceae (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Microbiology) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) Viruses Bacteria Poliovirus Shellfish Coliforms ContaminationoSix techniques were evaluated for recovery of poliovirus from Louisiana oysters. The methods were compared for percent recovery rates, toxicity, ease of extraction, bacterial contamination, and final volume of oyster concentrate. Oyster samples were contaminated with 30-40 plaque forming units of Poliovirus type 1 and processed by six variations of adsorption-elution-precipitation and elution-precipitation methods. The method developed by Ellender et al. (Natural enterovirus and fecal coliform contamination of gulf coast oysters. J. Food Prot. 43:105-110) was judged to be the preferred method for gulf coast oysters.8153823+?KCook, D. W. Ellender, R. D.1986ERelaying to decrease the concentration of oyster-associated pathogens196-202Journal of Food Protection493 Picornaviridae Enterobacteriaceae (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Bacteriology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Microbiology) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) Viruses Bacteria Salmonella Poliovirus Coliforms Contamination Water Temperature Foods PollutionjOysters experimentally contaminated with indicator bacteria, Salmonella and poliovirus were used in relaying studies designed to measure microbial elimination under a variety of environmental conditions. Two factors, level of microorganism in the oyster and temperature of the water, were important in determining the length of time necessary to purge the contaminating organisms. Oysters under physiological stress cleansed at a slower rate than did healthy oysters. Based on the expected level of pathogen contamination in naturally polluted oysters, healthy relaid oysters were capable of cleansing in a 7-d period provided the temperature was above 10.degree. C. These results were verified by following the elimination of indicator bacteria and poliovirus in commercially relaid oysters. Fecal indicator bacteria and enteric pathogenic bacteria were eliminated at similar rates but fecal coliform levels did not correlate with virus elimination. Relaying waters may contain some indicator bacteria and this study suggested that fecal coliforms may not be useful as end-point indicators for this method of oyster purification.8280376?L Cubitt, W. D.1996JHistorical background and classification of caliciviruses and astroviruses225-235Archives of Virology Supplement012Animal Viruses-General Caliciviridae (General Biology--History and Archaeology) (Microscopy Techniques--Electron Microscopy) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) microorganisms viruses Analytical Method Astrovirus Infection Calicivirus Infection Classification Diagnostic Method Diarrhea Digestive System Disease Electron Microscopy Enzyme Immunoassay Historical Background History Immunological Method Microscopy Method Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction Viral Disease Virology+Infections caused by caliciviruses, i.e., vesicular exanthema virus of swine were recognised as a major cause of economic loss in the 1930s. However, it was not until the application of electronmicroscopy in the 1970s that caliciviruses and astroviruses were recognised and proven to be a cause of diarrhoea and vomiting. The following review briefly describes the steps which have led to the development of diagnostic tests and enabled the characterization of several members of the Caliciviridae and Astroviridae. In the past five years this has culminated in the sequencing of their genomes and the expression of viral proteins. This in turn has led to the development of improved diagnostic tests e.g., RT-PCR and enzyme immunoassays, and may pave the way towards producing effective vaccines in the future.2957666~?MJDastjerdi, A. M. Green, J. Gallimore, C. I. Brown, D. W. G. Bridger, J. C.1999jThe bovine newbury agent-2 is genetically more closely related to human SRSVs than to animal caliciviruses1-5Virology2541Caliciviridae (Virology--General; Methods) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) Animal Viruses Viruses Viral Genome: AmplificationThe hypothesis that the enteric bovine calici-like virus Newbury agent (NA-2) belongs to the family Caliciviridae was examined by genome sequence analysis. Use of solid-phase immune electron microscopy allowed samples with good levels of virus to be identified and amplification of the genome was achieved by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Examination of a 216-amino-acid sequence in the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene and a 116-amino-acid sequence in the capsid gene showed that NA-2 had the closest deduced amino acid identity (77 to 80% for the polymerase region and 67 to 73% for the capsid region) to the morphologically indistinguishable human SRSVs (small round structured viruses) of genogroup 1, which are classified as members of the Caliciviridae. It had a weak relationship (<34.5% deduced amino acid identity) in both the polymerase and the capsid regions to animal caliciviruses, all of which have classical morphology. This is the first genomic data from a nonhuman virus with SRSV morphology. It confirms the hypothesis that the bovine enteric calici-like virus NA-2 is a member of the family Caliciviridae and endorses the observation to date that viruses with SRSV morphology are genomically distinct.dhttp://www.idealibrary.com/links/citation/0042-6822/254/1 http://www.idealibrary.com/links/toc/viro/,; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA Access restricted.4625334~?O=Dingle, Kate E. Lambden, Paul R. Caul, E. Owen Clarke, Ian N.1995Human enteric Caliciviridae: The complete genome sequence and expression of virus-like particles from a genetic group II small round structured virus 2349-2355Journal of General Virology769iCaliciviridae (Evolution) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--Chemical and Physical) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) microorganisms viruses Capsid Protein Conserved Sequences Helicase Lordsdale Virus Protease Rna PolymeraseComparisons of the RNA polymerase and capsid sequences of small round structured viruses (SRSVs) have recently shown these are genetically diverse viruses which fall into two distinct groups. The genomes of two group I viruses, Southampton and Norwalk viruses have been characterized; however, similar data for the genetic group II SRSVs have not been available until now. We report here the complete genome sequence of a recent group II SRSV, Lordsdale virus. The Lordsdale virus genome is 7555 nt in length and has a similar organization to the group I SRSVs. The large ORF in the 5' half of the genome (5100 nt) is shorter than the group I SRSV ORF1 (5367 nt), but has the characteristic 2C helicase, 3C protease and 3D RNA polymerase enzyme motifs. ORF2, encoding the structural protein is of a similar size to the group I viruses but the small 3'-terminal ORF is significantly larger in group II. A highly conserved sequence of 28 nt was identified at the start of Lordsdale virus ORF1 and repeated at the start of ORF2. These conserved motifs are typical of the animal caliciviruses. Comparison of the 150 N-terminal amino acids in the ORF1 protein revealed little identity between the two SRSV genetic groups, reflecting the shorter ORF1 in the group II virus. Recombinant baculoviruses containing ORF2 and ORF3 sequences were constructed and used to express large quantities of the group II Lordsdale virus structural protein. The capsid protein formed virus-like particles by self assembly which resembled 'empty' SRSVs.; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA1895825 -|7Fino, V. R. Kniel, K. E.2008zUV light inactivation of hepatitis A virus, Aichi virus, and feline calicivirus on strawberries, green onions, and lettuce908-13 J Food Prot715Calicivirus, Feline/growth & development/*radiation effects Colony Count, Microbial Consumer Product Safety Crops, Agricultural/*virology Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation Food Contamination/analysis/prevention & control Food Handling/*methods Fragaria/virology Hepatitis A virus/growth & development/*radiation effects Humans Kobuvirus/growth & development/*radiation effects Lettuce/virology Onions/virology *Ultraviolet RaysMayA majority of illnesses caused by foodborne viruses are associated with fresh produce. Fruits and vegetables may be considered high-risk foods, as they are often consumed raw without a specific inactivation step. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate nonthermal treatments for the inactivation of foodborne pathogens. This study investigates the UV inactivation of three viruses: feline calicivirus (a surrogate for norovirus), and two picornaviruses, hepatitis A virus and Aichi virus. Three produce types were selected for their different surface topographies and association with outbreaks. Green onions, lettuce, and strawberries were individually spot inoculated with 10(7) to 10(9) 50% tissue culture infective doses (TCID50) of each virus per ml and exposed to UV light at various doses (< or = 240 mW s/cm2), and viruses were eluted using an optimized recovery strategy. Virus infection was quantified by TCID50 in mammalian cell culture and compared with untreated recovered virus. UV light applied to contaminated lettuce resulted in inactivation of 4.5 to 4.6 log TCID50/ml; for contaminated green onions, inactivation ranged from 2.5 to 5.6 log TCID50/ml; and for contaminated strawberries, inactivation ranged from 1.9 to 2.6 log TCID50/ml for the three viruses tested. UV light inactivation on the surface of lettuce is more effective than inactivation on the other two produce items. Consistently, the lowest results were observed in the inactivation of viruses on strawberries. No significant differences (P > 0.05) for virus inactivation were observed among the three doses applied (40, 120, and 240 mW s/cm2) on the produce, with the exception of hepatitis A virus and Aichi virus inactivation on green onions, where inactivation continued at 120 mW s/cm2 (P < 0.05).ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=18522022Fino, Viviana R Kniel, Kalmia E Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't United States Journal of food protection J Food Prot. 2008 May;71(5):908-13.0362-028X (Print)18522022Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, 044 Townsend Hall, 531 South College Avenue, Newark, Delaware 19716-2150, USA.englU$|7JGuan, D. Kniel, K. Calci, K. R. Hicks, D. T. Pivarnik, L. F. Hoover, D. G.2006AResponse of four types of coliphages to high hydrostatic pressure546-51Food Microbiol236Analysis of Variance Coliphages/*growth & development *Food Microbiology Hepatitis A virus/growth & development *Hydrostatic Pressure Temperature Time Factors *Virus InactivationSep Pressure inactivation of four types of coliphages, varphiX 174 X?R5Dore, William J. Henshilwood, Kathleen Lees, David N.2000wEvaluation of F-specific RNA bacteriophage as a candidate human enteric virus indicator for bivalve molluscan shellfish 1280-1285&Applied and Environmental Microbiology664Animal Viruses-General Bacterial Viruses-General Enterobacteriaceae Pelecypoda (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--General) (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--General; Methods) (Virology--Bacteriophage) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Public Health: Microbiology) Animal Viruses Bacteria Bacterial Viruses Eubacteria Invertebrates Mollusks Viruses Fecal Pollution Oyster: Microbial Analysis, Microbial Contamination, Shellfish Viral Shellfish Contamination' Escherichia coli is a widely utilized indicator of the sanitary quality of bivalve molluscan shellfish sold for human consumption. However, it is now well documented that shellfish that meet the E. coli standards for human consumption may contain human enteric viruses that cause gastroenteritis and hepatitis. In this study we investigated using F-specific RNA bacteriophage (FRNA bacteriophage) to indicate the likely presence of such viruses in shellfish sold for consumption. FRNA bacteriophage and E. coli levels were determined over a 2-year period for oysters (Crassostrea gigas) harvested from four commercial sites chosen to represent various degrees of sewage pollution. Three sites were classified as category B sites under the relevant European Community (EC) Directive (91/492), which required purification (depuration) of oysters from these sites before sale. One site was classified as a category A site, and oysters from this site could be sold directly without further processing. Samples were tested at the point of sale following commercial processing and packaging. All of the shellfish complied with the mandatory EC E. coli standard (less than 230 per 100 g of shellfish flesh), and the levels of contamination for more than 90% of the shellfish were at or below the level of sensitivity of the assay (20 E. coli MPN per 100 g), which indicated good quality based on this criterion. In contrast, FRNA bacteriophage were frequently detected at levels that exceeded 1,000 PFU per 100 g. High levels of FRNA bacteriophage contamination were strongly associated with harvest area fecal pollution and with shellfish-associated disease outbreaks. Interestingly, FRNA bacteriophage contamination exhibited a marked seasonal trend that was consistent with the trend of oyster-associated gastroenteritis in the United Kingdom. The correlation between FRNA bacteriophage contamination and health risk was investigated further by using a reverse transcription-PCR assay for Norwalk-like virus (NLV). NLV contamination of oysters was detected only at the most polluted site and also exhibited a seasonal trend that was consistent with the trend of FRNA bacteriophage contamination and with the incidence of disease. The results of this study suggest that FRNA bacteriophage could be used as viral indicators for market-ready oysters.@http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/full/66/4/1280 http://aem.asm.org5509601K?T Alouini, Soumaya Sobsey, Mark D.1995Evaluation of an extraction-precipitation method for recovering hepatitis A virus and poliovirus from hardshell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria)465-469Water Science and Technology315-6EPicornaviridae Pelecypoda (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Animal) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Invertebrata, Comparative and Experimental Morphology, Physiology and Pathology--Mollusca) animals chordates humans invertebrates mammals microorganisms mollusks primates vertebrates viruses Fecal Contamination Human Disease Vector Marine Polymerase Chain Reaction Sewage Water Pollution1845710t?V^Armigliato, M. Bortolotti, F. Bertaggia, A. Carretta, M. Meneghetti, F. Noventa, F. Realdi, G.1986BEpidemiology of hepatitis A in northern Italy: A seven-year survey283-285 Infection146Picornaviridae Malacostraca (Behavioral Biology--Human Behavior) (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Psychiatry--Addiction:Alcohol, Drugs, Smoking, etc.) (Gerontology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Administration and Statistics) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Animate) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) Viruses Invertebrates Arthropods Crustaceans Age Foreign Travel Raw Shellfish Ingestion Drug AbuseDuring a seven-year survey of acute symptomatic viral hepatitis in Padua (Northern Italy), the epidemiological features of hepatitis A were evaluated in 207 consecutive patients (120 males, mean age 22.7 .plus-minus. 11.4 years). The annual attack rate of the disease decreased significantly (p < 0.05) between 1978 and 1979 (0.11/1000 inhabitants) and 1981 and 1984 (0.04-0.03/1000 inhabitants), mainly due to its declining prevalence in the pediatric age. In parallel with the shifting of hepatitis A towards adulthood, single sources of infection, mainly associated with adult life-style such as foreign travel and raw shellfish ingestion, have become more and more prominent. The spread of drug abuse has not influenced the epidemiology of hepatitis A in our area.7685049F?f~Deneen, Valerie C. Hunt, John M. Paule, Charles R. James, Rohaizah I. Johnson, Richard G. Raymond, Monica J. Hedberg, Craig W.2000EThe impact of foodborne calicivirus disease: The Minnesota experience S281-S283Journal of Infectious Diseases181 Supplement 2MCaliciviridae (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--General and Miscellaneous) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--General) Animal Viruses Viruses Foodborne Viral TransmissionThe first outbreaks of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis in Minnesota were confirmed in 1982. Since then, Norwalk-like caliciviruses have been recognized to be the most common cause of foodborne disease outbreaks, accounting for 41% of all confirmed foodborne outbreaks in Minnesota from 1981-1998. Although laboratory confirmation of caliciviruses in stool samples was not attempted in most of these outbreaks, all conformed to epidemiologic criteria for defining outbreaks of Norwalk virus. Since 1996, the availability of polymerase chain reaction testing at the Minnesota Department of Health has allowed for the confirmation of calicivirus infection among patients involved in epidemiologically defined outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis. Results have confirmed the usefulness of characterizing foodborne disease outbreaks by epidemiologic criteria and also confirmed the importance of human caliciviruses as the leading cause of foodborne disease outbreaks in Minnesota.6308366]SO|7T-Myrmel, M. Berg, E. M. Grinde, B. Rimstad, E.2006HEnteric viruses in inlet and outlet samples from sewage treatment plants197-209J Water Health42*Environmental Monitoring/methods Humans RNA, Viral/analysis Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods *Viruses *Waste Disposal, Fluid/methods *Water Microbiology *Water PollutionJun-Samples collected every two weeks from the inlet and outlet of three sewage treatment plants were screened for the presence of noro-, rota-, astro-, adeno-, hepatitis A- and circoviruses by (RT)-nested PCR, and for F-specific bacteriophages by isolation in Escherichia coli Famp. Plants A and B were secondary treatment plants and plant C used primary treatment. Noroviruses were detected in 43%, 53% and 24% of the inlet samples and 26%, 40% and 21% of the outlet samples from plants A, B and C, respectively. Astroviruses, rotaviruses and adenoviruses were more prevalent. Adenoviruses were detected in 96% of inlet and 94% of outlet samples, supporting the potential of these viruses as indicators of viral contamination from sewage. Hepatitis A virus and circoviruses were found only rarely. Reduction of infective viral particles during sewage treatment was evaluated using F-specific bacteriophages. The phages were reduced by, respectively, 99%, 87% and 0% in plants A, B and C, which corresponded to the observed differences in reduction of norovirus positive samples between the same plants. The study shows that the high viral load in sewage results in a discharge to the ~?mFuhrman, Jed A.1999>Marine viruses and their biogeochemical and ecological effects541-548Nature (London)3996736Viruses-General Bacteria-General Unspecified Algae-Unspecified (Ecology; Environmental Biology--General; Methods) (Nutrition--General Studies, Nutritional Status and Methods) (Bacteriology, General and Systematic) (Virology--General; Methods) Algae Bacteria Eubacteria Nonvascular Plants Viruses Abundance Algal Bloom Control Biogeochemical Effects Ecological Effects Genetic Transfer Lysogeny Microbial Biodiversity Nutrient Cycling Particle Size-Distributions Sinking Rates System RespirationlViruses are the most common biological agents in the sea, typically numbering ten billion per litre. They probably infect all organisms, can undergo rapid decay and replenishment, and influence many biogeochemical and ecological processes, including nutrient cycling, system respiration, particle size-distributions and sinking rates, bacterial and algal biodiversity and species distributions, algal bloom control, dimethyl sulphide formation and genetic transfer. Newly developed fluorescence and molecular techniques leave the field poised to make significant advances towards evaluating and quantifying such effects.REVIEW; LITERATURE REVIEW;4865415?n;Fujiyama, S. Akahoshi, M. Sagara, K. Sato, T. Tsurusaki, R.1985>An epidemic of hepatitis A related to ingestion of raw oysters6-13Gastroenterologia Japonica201IPicornaviridae (Metabolism--Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) Viruses Hepatitis A Virus Children Adults Hondo City Kumamoto Prefecture Japan Fecal-Oral Route Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Immunoglobulin MAn epidemic of hepatitis A occurred around Hondo City, Kumamoto Prefecture Japan, during the first 6 mo. of 1982. Clinical, immunological and epidemiological studies were carried out in 225 cases. Cases were distributed over a relatively wide area, and in small numbers of young children and school children. Of the patients > 1/2 were in their twenties or thirties. The clinical course was generally favorable with rapid resolution. No episode lasted > 6 mo. There was only 1 fatality in a case who was a carrier of hepatitis B surface antigen with liver cirrhosis. Titers of IgM anti-HAV (hepatitis A virus) measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) or enzyme immunoassay (EIA) reached a peak during the 2nd wk after onset, followed by a gradual decrease. Conversion to negative results was never experienced within 2 mo. A good correlation between RIA and EIA in terms of detecting IgM anti-HAV was found. The route of infection was thought to be fecal-oral in nature, with ingestion of raw oxysters the major etiologic factor.8790603?o0Gajardo, R. Bouchriti, N. Pinto, R. M. Bosch, A.1995.Genotyping of rotaviruses isolated from sewage 3460-3462&Applied and Environmental Microbiology619Reoviridae-animal host only (Ecology; Environmental Biology--General; Methods) (Biochemistry--Comparative Biochemistry, General) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Replication, Transcription, Translation) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--Methods) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Laboratory Methods) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Public Health: Microbiology) microorganisms viruses Analytical Method Detection Environmental Samples Gene Variable Regions Genetics Identification Polymerase Chain Reaction Primers Waste DisposaldRotaviruses from environmental samples have been genotyped by a seminested reverse transcription PCR assay with serotype-specific primers derived from variable regions of gene 9, which produce different characteristic segment sizes for serotypes 1 to 4. The method enabled the detection and identification of type 1, 2, and 3 group A rotaviruses in sewage.1869782?pHGdalevich, M. Grotto, I. Mandel, Y. Mimouni, D. Shemer, J. Ashkenazi, I.1998SHepatitis A antibody prevalence among young adults in Israel--the decline continues477-9Epidemiology and Infection1212Adolescence Adult Female Hepatitis A epidemiology Hepatitis A immunology Hepatitis A prevention & control Hepatitis Antibodies analysis Human Israel epidemiology Male Risk Factors Seroepidemiologic Studies Viral Hepatitis Vaccines administration & dosageThis study sought to determine whether the decline in prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibodies detected in Israel in 1977, 1984, and 1987 has continued. The anti-HAV antibody prevalence of a systematic sample of 578 male and female recruits inducted into the Israel Defence Force in 1996 was 38.4%. The reduction in antibody prevalence from 1977 (64%) was highly significant (P < 0.001). There was a smaller decrease rate in recruits of European, North American, Australian and South African origin than from elsewhere. A 'strategy' that uses active immunization against hepatitis A (inactivated vaccine, instead of gamma globulin) should be considered, particularly in high risk groups such as field units during military service.OctEpidemiol Infect?q?Girones, R. Puig, M. Allard, A. Lucena, F. Wadell, G. Jofre, J.1995ODetection of adenovirus and enterovirus by PCR amplification in polluted waters351-357.Water Science and Technology315-6Adenoviridae (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography and Limnology) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Oceanography) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Limnology) (Biochemistry--Comparative Biochemistry, General) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Replication, Transcription, Translation) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--Methods) (Metabolism--Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Sewage Disposal and Sanitary Measures) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Complementary Dna Contamination Environmental Pollution Human Disease Vector Marine Polymerase Chain Reaction River Sewage(JOURNAL ARTICLE; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA?sCGray, J. J. Jiang, X. Morgan-Capner, P. Desselberg, U. Estes, M. K.1993Prevalence of antibodies to Norwalk virus in England: Detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsid antigen 1022-1025. Journal of Clinical Microbiology314Animal Viruses-General (Social Biology; Human Ecology) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Carbohydrates) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Metabolism--Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Blood, Blood-Forming Organs and Body Fluids--Blood and Lymph Studies) (Gerontology) (Pediatrics) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Serodiagnosis) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Aged Adults Diagnostic Method Elisa Genetic Engineering Genetically Engineered Product Immunologic Method Infants Seroprevalence Synthetic MethodA total of 3,250 serum specimens collected in England in 1991 and 1992 were tested by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for antibody to Norwalk virus using baculovirus-expressed capsid antigen, and 2,382 (73.3%) were positive. The prevalence of Norwalk virus antibody differed regionally. It was lowest (24.6%) in 6- to 11-month-old infants and increased to 89.7% in persons over 60 years old.JOURNAL ARTICLE \?t`Green, Steve M. Dingle, Kate E. Lambden, Paul R. Caul, E. Owen Ashley, Charles R. Clarke, Ian N.1994Human enteric Caliciviridae: A new prevalent small round-structured virus group defined by RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and capsid diversity 1883-1888.Journal of General Virology758Caliciviridae (General Biology--Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Terminology) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods--General) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Replication, Transcription, Translation) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--Methods) (Enzymes--Chemical and Physical) (Enzymes--Physiological Studies) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Metabolism--General Metabolism; Metabolic Pathways) (Metabolism--Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Microbiological Ultrastructure (1972- )) (Virology--General; Methods) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Microbiology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Analytical Method Complementary Dna Computer Analysis Enzymes Genetic Variation Human Gastroenteritis Outbreaks Morphology Open Reading FramesSequence comparison of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerases of small round-structured viruses (SRSVs) from 10 recent U.K. outbreaks of gastroenteritis revealed significant genetic variation. Computer analyses indicated that these viruses can be divided into two discrete groups. SRSV group I contains the previously characterized antigenic type 1 Norwalk and type 3 Southampton viruses. The amino acid sequences of the RNA polymerase, capsid and ORF3 of these two viruses are relatively similar (about 92%, 69% and 72% amino acid identity, respectively). A representative member of group II SRSVs, Bristol virus, was subjected to a detailed genetic analysis. Bristol virus is a recent antigenic type 2 isolate from a U.K. hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. Using a single clinical sample the 3'-terminal 3 881 nucleotide cDNA sequence (excluding the poly(A) tail) of this virus was determined. Analysis of the sequence revealed significant differences from those of group I viruses with the RNA polymerase region, capsid and ORF3 showing only about 62%, 43% and 30% amino acid identity respectively with the equivalent proteins of the Norwalk and Southampton viruses. These data suggest that the morphologically identical SRSVs belong to at least two genetically distinct groups.(JOURNAL ARTICLE; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA ?uGreenberg, H. B. Matsui, S. M.1992:Astroviruses and caliciviruses: emerging enteric pathogens71-91Infectious Agents and Disease12Animal Antibodies, Viral blood Astrovirus genetics Astrovirus immunology Astrovirus pathogenicity Caliciviridae Infections epidemiology Caliciviridae Infections prevention & control Caliciviridae Infections therapy Calicivirus genetics Calicivirus immunology Calicivirus pathogenicity Gastroenteritis etiology Human Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. Virus Diseases epidemiology Virus Diseases prevention & control Virus Diseases therapy;Acute, infectious gastroenteritis is an extremely common disease that contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality worldwide. In the United States, it is the second most frequent illness encountered in families. While this illness generally runs a self-limited course, it may be temporarily incapacitating and impact substantially on numbers of days lost from work or school. At present, 30-40% of infectious gastroenteritis cases in the United States are attributable to viral agents, while 20-30% are due to bacteria and parasites. These estimates are almost certainly low, since the cause of gastroenteritis is not discernible in approximately 40% of the cases, and gastroenteritis may be caused by viruses or other pathogens that cannot be identified at this time. Rotavirus and enteric adenovirus are two of the most prevalent and well-studied of the viral agents and have been reviewed extensively elsewhere. This review focuses on two broad groups of small round structured viruses (SRSV), astroviruses and caliciviruses (classic, Norwalk, and Norwalk-like). Although recognized in association with acute, nonbacterial gastroenteritis since the early 1970s, the study of these viruses has been hampered by the relatively low levels of viral shedding in feces, difficulty in propagating the virus in cell or organ culture, and the lack of widely available, well-standardized reagents for their detection. In spite of these obstacles, much has been learned about these viruses using standard virologic (electron microscopy, biophysical characterization, immunoassays) and epidemiologic methods. More recently, substantial progress has been made in studying astroviruses and caliciviruses at the molecular level. Molecular techniques are now being used as diagnostic aids to characterize the epidemiology of these agents in greater detail.AprInfect Agents Dis>?v Haas, C. N.1983`Estimation of risk due to low doses of microorganisms: a comparison of alternative methodologies573-82 American Journal of Epidemiology1184)Bacteria immunology Bacterial Infections transmission Comparative Study Human Infection transmission Models, Theoretical Protozoan Infections transmission Risk Sanitary Engineering Statistics Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Virus Diseases transmission Viruses immunology Water Microbiology Water PollutionThe log-normal, or log-probit, simple exponential and beta distributed effectiveness models were evaluated for their ability to describe experimental dose-response data for human exposure to waterborne bacteria and viruses. Each of the models was capable of describing at least some of the available data; however, the beta-distributed model appeared to be the most widely applicable. When used to extrapolate to extremely low exposure levels, divergent predictions are obtained for each of the three models. On the basis of this analysis, it is impossible to rule out the hypothesis that a single microorganism when ingested has the potential of inducing infection or disease.OctAm J Epidemiol9968351i?yPHeller, D. Gill, O. N. Raynham, E. Kirkland, T. Zadick, P. M. Stanwell-Smith, R.1986\An outbreak of gastrointestinal illness associated with consumption of raw depurated oysters1726-7/British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.)29265378Disease Outbreaks Gastroenteritis etiology Human OystersJun 28Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) ]?z%Henshilwood, K. Green, J. Lees, D. N.1998Monitoring the marine environment for small round structured viruses (SRSVS): A new approach to combating the transmission of these viruses by molluscan shellfish51-56.Water Science and Technology3812Caliciviridae Invertebrata-Unspecified (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (General Biology--Conservation, Resource Management) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--General; Methods) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods--General) Animal Viruses Invertebrates Viruses Oyster: Shellfish, Vector Public Health Protection Shellfish Harvesting Area Virus ContaminationThis study investigates human enteric virus contamination of a shellfish harvesting area. Samples were analysed over a 14-month period for Small Round Structured Viruses (SRSVs) using a previously developed nested RT-PCR. A clear seasonal difference was observed with the largest numbers of positive samples obtained during the winter period (October to March). This data concurs with the known winter association of gastroenteric illness due to oyster consumption in the UK and also with the majority of the outbreaks associated with shellfish harvested from this area during the study period. RT-PCR positive amplicons were further characterized by cloning and sequencing. Sequence analysis of the positive samples identified eleven SRSV strains, of both Genogroup I and Genogroup II, occurring throughout the study period. Many shellfish samples contained a mixture of strains with a few samples containing up to three different strains with both Genogroups represented. The observed common occurrence of strain mixtures may have implications for the role of shellfish as a vector for dissemination of SRSV strains. These results show that nested RT-PCR can identify SRSV contamination in shellfish harvesting areas. Virus monitoring of shellfish harvesting areas by specialist laboratories using RT-PCR is a possible approach to combating the transmission of SRSVs by molluscan shellfish and could potentially offer significantly enhanced levels of public health protection.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?*ob=GatewayURL&*origin=CDL&*urlversion=3&*method=citationSearch&*volkey=02731223%2338%2351&*version=1&md5=69586325c7eb8dabc444f73241f617c0 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02731223JOURNAL ARTICLE?{wHerrmann, John E. Blacklow, Neil R. Matsui, Suzanne M. Lewis, Terry L. Estes, Mary K. Ball, Judith M. Brinker, James P.1995FMonoclonal antibodies for detection of norwalk virus antigen in stools 2511-2513. Journal of Clinical Microbiology339Animal Viruses-General (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Carbohydrates) (Enzymes--Methods) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Complementary Dna Enzyme ImmunoassayMonoclonal antibodies against the prototype 8FIIa strain of Norwalk virus were prepared and applied to an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for detecting Norwalk virus in stool specimens. The monoclonal antibodies immunoprecipitated a 58-kDa protein which had been produced by in vitro transcription-translation of Norwalk virus cloned cDNA, and they reacted by EIA with recombinant Norwalk virus capsid protein at a sensitivity level of 1 ng/ml. The EIA detected virus in all tested samples from 15 different Norwalk virus-infected volunteers. No cross-reactions were seen in stools containing other caliciviruses or in stools containing rotaviruses, astroviruses, or enteric adenoviruses.JOURNAL ARTICLE?|,Herrmann, J. E. Nowak, N. A. Blacklow, N. R.1985:Detection of Norwalk virus in stools by enzyme immunoassay127-33Journal of Medical Virology172Antigens, Viral analysis Diarrhea microbiology Feces microbiology Human Immunoenzyme Techniques Norwalk Virus isolation & purification Species Specificity Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Virus Diseases microbiologyTThe development of a solid-phase microtiter enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for detection of Norwalk virus antigen in stool samples is described. The EIA was compared with a previously developed radioimmunoassay (RIA) for detection of Norwalk virus antigen in stools obtained from 30 volunteers who received Norwalk virus. The EIA detected viral antigen in stools from 17 of the volunteers and the RIA detected viral antigen in 15. Seroconversion was a more sensitive indicator of infection in some patients. However, two samples from volunteers who were clinically ill but did not show seroconversion to Norwalk virus were positive for Norwalk virus antigen by both immunoassays. This indicates that antigen detection may be important for use in epidemiological studies. Neither of the immunoassays gave positive reactions for stools known to contain enteric adenovirus, rotavirus, or Hawaii virus, or in stools from patients with acute diarrhea of unknown cause. The stability of the EIA reagents and ease of use should provide a means for more extensive testing for Norwalk virus in outbreaks of gastroenteritis.Oct J Med Virol?}\Herrmann, J. E. Nowak, N. A. Perron-Henry, D. M. Hudson, R. W. Cubitt, W. D. Blacklow, N. R.1990WDiagnosis of astrovirus gastroenteritis by antigen detection with monoclonal antibodies226-9Journal of Infectious Diseases1612=Antibodies, Monoclonal diagnostic use Antibodies, Monoclonal immunology Antibodies, Viral immunology Antigens, Viral analysis Antigens, Viral immunology Astrovirus immunology Astrovirus isolation & purification Astrovirus ultrastructure Comparative Study Cross Reactions Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Feces microbiology Gastroenteritis diagnosis Gastroenteritis microbiology Human Microscopy, Electron Predictive Value of Tests Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Virus Diseases diagnosis Virus Diseases microbiology Viruses, Unclassified immunologyAn enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), based on monoclonal antibodies to the astrovirus group antigen, was designed for the detection of astroviruses in stools of patients with gastroenteritis. Compared to immune electron microscopy used as the standard test, the sensitivity of the astrovirus ELISA was 91% (31/34) and the specificity was 96% (54/56). All five of the known astrovirus serotypes could be detected in 16 samples on which serotyping was done. In tests on 155 stools containing other enteric viruses, including adenoviruses, rotaviruses, caliciviruses, Hawaii virus, Snow Mountain virus, and Norwalk virus (30, 20, 70, 24, 4, and 7 samples, respectively), only 3 were positive in the astrovirus ELISA. The combined specificity for all astrovirus immune electron microscopy-negative samples was 98% (206/211). The results demonstrate that the new ELISA provides a sensitive and specific means for the diagnosis of astrovirus gastroenteritis.Feb J Infect Dis5?dHuang, Rutong Li, Derong Wei, Shaojing Li, Qinghong Yuan, Xitong Geng, Liqing Li, Xiaoyu Liu, Minxia19993Cell culture of sporadic hepatitis E virus in China729-733-Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology65Animal Viruses-General (Cytology and Cytochemistry--Human) (Neoplasms and Neoplastic Agents--General) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) Animal Viruses Viruses Cell Culture Vaccine ResearchThe isolation and identification of the 87A strain of epidemic hepatitis E virus (HEV) by means of cell culturing have been described previously. This paper reports the successful isolation of a sporadic HEV strain (G93-2) in human lung carcinoma cell (A549) cultures. The etiology, molecular and biological properties, and serological relationship of this new strain to other, epidemic HEV strains are described. The propagation of both sporadic and epidemic HEV strains in a cell culture system will facilitate vaccine research.@http://cdli.asm.org/cgi/content/full/6/5/729 http://cdli.asm.org5091258|7Kamata, K. Shinozaki, K. Okada, M. Seto, Y. Kobayashi, S. Sakae, K. Oseto, M. Natori, K. Shirato-Horikoshi, H. Katayama, K. Tanaka, T. Takeda, N. Taniguchi, K.2005Expression and antigenicity of virus-like particles of norovirus and their application for detection of noroviruses in stool samples129-36 J Med Virol761jAnimals Antigens, Viral/*analysis/biosynthesis/genetics Baculoviridae/genetics/metabolism Caliciviridae Infections/diagnosis Capsid Proteins/analysis/biosynthesis/genetics Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/methods Feces/*virology Gastroenteritis/diagnosis Humans Norovirus/genetics/immunology/*isolation & purification Phylogeny Recombinant Proteins/biosynthesisMayHuman noroviruses (NoVs), members of the genus Norovirus in the family Caliciviridae, are the leading agents of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Human NoVs are currently divided into at least two genogroups, genogroup I (GI) and genogroup II (GII), each of which contains at least 14 and 17 genotypes. To explore the genetic and antigenic relationship among NoVs, we expressed the capsid protein of four genetically distinct NoVs, the GI/3 Kashiwa645 virus, the GII/3 Sanbu809 virus, the GII/5 Ichikawa754 virus, and the GII/7 Osaka10-25 virus in baculovirus expression system. An antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with hyperimmune serum against the four recombinant capsid proteins and characterized previously three capsid proteins derived from GI/1, GI/4, and GII/12 was developed to detect the NoVs antigen in stools. The antigen ELISA was highly specific to the homotypic strains, allowing assignment of a strain to a Norovirus genetic cluster within a genogroup.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15778983MKamata, Kunio Shinozaki, Kuniko Okada, Mineyuki Seto, Yoshiyuki Kobayashi, Shinichi Sakae, Kenji Oseto, Mitsuaki Natori, Katsuro Shirato-Horikoshi, Haruko Katayama, Kazuhiko Tanaka, Tomoyuki Takeda, Naokazu Taniguchi, Koki Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't United States Journal of medical virology J Med Virol. 2005 May;76(1):129-36.0146-6615 (Print)15778983NTechnical Marketing Department, Denka-Seiken Co., Ltd., Gosen, Niigata, Japan.10.1002/jmv.20334engZ?@Jonassen, T. O. Monceyron, C. Lee, T. W. Kurtz, J. B. Grinde, B.1995ODetection of all serotypes of human astrovirus by the polymerase chain reaction327-34Journal of Virological Methods523 Astrovirus classification Astrovirus isolation & purification Base Sequence Feces Human Molecular Sequence Data Polymerase Chain Reaction methods Polymerase Chain Reaction standards RNA-Directed DNA Polymerase RNA, Viral analysis Serotyping Virus Diseases diagnosisYA reverse transcription (RT) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was designed for the detection of astroviruses based on a conserved nucleotide sequence in the 3'-end of the genome of the 7 known serotypes of human astrovirus. Thirty-eight samples found to contain astrovirus by electron microscopy (EM) were used for evaluation of the assay. The samples were dialyzed for 1 h to remove potential low molecular weight inhibitors of the RT-PCR. Immediately before RT, 1 microliters of the samples were incubated at 94 degrees C for 2 min to disrupt the viral particles. Thirty-six of the samples were positive by PCR, including samples of all 7 serotypes. The two samples that were negative, could hve been false positive by EM, or the viral RNA could have been degraded. All other viruses examined, including calici-, rota- and enteroviruses, were negative.AprJ Virol Methods?Kapikian, A. Z.1996!Overview of viral gastroenteritis7-19"Archives of Virology. Supplementum121Diarrhea history Diarrhea virology Gastroenteritis history Gastroenteritis virology History of Medicine, 20th Cent. Human Norwalk Virus Norwalk Virus genetics Norwalk Virus physiology Rotavirus Rotavirus immunology Rotavirus physiology Rotavirus ultrastructureDiarrheal illnesses in humans have been recognized since antiquity. Such illnesses continue to take a great toll of lives, with a disproportionately high mortality in infants and young children in developing countries. Bacteriologic and parasitologic advances made during the past century led to the discovery of the etiology of some of the diarrheal illnesses, but the etiology of the major portion remained unknown. It was assumed that viruses caused most of these illnesses because: (i) bacteria were recovered from only a small proportion of episodes, and (ii) bacteria-free filtrates were found to induce gastroenteritis in adult volunteer studies. However, an etiologic agent could not be recovered despite the "golden age" of virology in the 1950's and 1960's when tissue culture technology enabled the discovery of numerous cultivatable enteric viruses, none of which emerged as an important etiologic agent of gastroenteritis. The discoveries of the Norwalk virus in 1972, and of rotaviruses in 1973, both without the benefit of in vitro tissue culture systems, ushered in a new era in the study of the etiology of viral gastroenteritis. The Norwalk virus was found to be an important cause of non-bacterial epidemic gastroenteritis in adults and older children, and rotaviruses were shown to be the single most important etiologic agents of severe diarrheal illnesses of infants and young children in both developed and developing countries. With the major advances in the study of rotaviruses, there is a high degree of optimism that in the not-too-distant future, a rotavirus vaccine will be available. In addition, the recent molecular biologic advances in the study of the Norwalk and Norwalk-like viruses, now firmly established as caliviviruses, represent a major new horizon in the study of these viruses.Arch Virol Supplg?DKaplan, J. E. Feldman, R. Campbell, D. S. Lookabaugh, C. Gary, G. W.1982XThe frequency of a Norwalk-like pattern of illness in outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis1329-32!American Journal of Public Health7212Acute Disease Disease Outbreaks epidemiology Epidemiologic Methods Gastroenteritis epidemiology Gastroenteritis etiology Gastroenteritis physiopathology Human Norwalk Virus United StatesRecords of 642 outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis were reviewed to determine the proportion of outbreaks that were clinically and epidemiologically consistent with Norwalk-like virus infection. Using as our criteria stool cultures negative for bacterial pathogens, mean (or median) duration of illness 12-60 hours, vomiting in greater than or equal to 50 per cent of cases, and, if known, mean (or median) incubation period of 24-48 hours, we found that 23 per cent of waterborne outbreaks, 4 per cent of foodborne outbreaks, and 67 per cent, 60 per cent, and 28 per cent of outbreaks in nursing homes, in summer camps, and on cruise ships, respectively, satisfied the criteria for Norwalk-like pattern. Of 54 outbreaks that satisfied the criteria for Norwalk-like pattern, 14 were investigated for virus etiology. Ten of these (71 per cent) yielded serologic evidence of Norwalk-like virus infection. Norwalk-like viruses are probably an important cause of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis. Investigation for Norwalk virus antibody in outbreaks that are clinically and epidemiologically consistent with Norwalk-like virus infection is likely to yield diagnostically useful results.DecAm J Public Health?tKawamoto, Hiroyoshi Hasegawa, Sumiyo Sawatari, Seiko Miwa, Chieko Morita, Osayuki Hosokawa, Takehiko Tanaka, Hiroshi1993fSmall, round-structured viruses (SRSVs) associated with acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in Gifu, Japan991-997.Microbiology and Immunology3712Animal Viruses-General (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Microbiological Ultrastructure (1972- )) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Microbiology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Electron Microscopy Norwalk-Like VirusTwo outbreaks of non-bacterial gastroenteritis occurred in Gifu prefecture in January 1989 and in January 1991. Both outbreaks were closely related to the consumption of raw oysters, and showed similar clinical features. Small, round-structured virus particles were found in patient stools in both outbreaks by electron microscopy. The role of these particles as the causative agents of the outbreaks were strongly suggested by immune electron microscopy and/or western-blotting immunoassay. When compared with SRSV-9 (Tokyo/SRSV/86-510) reported previously (Hayashi et al, J. Clin. Microbiol., 27: 1728-1733, 1989), it was found that these viral particles were antigenically similar to SRSV-9, and had a major structural protein of 63 kilodaltons (kDa). Further, the prevalence of this agent in Gifu area was examined by western blot antibody assay using 67 serum samples collected from the inhabitants in 1991. The results indicated the circulation of the same or antigenically similar agent in this area.JOURNAL ARTICLE?Koff, Raymond S.19954Seroepidemiology of hepatitis A in the United StatesS19-S23.Journal of Infectious Diseases171SUPPL. 17Picornaviridae (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Routes of Immunization, Infection and Therapy) (Toxicology--Foods, Food Residues, Additives and Preservatives) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health--Public Health Administration and Statistics) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--General) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Drinking Water Contamination Fecal-Oral Route Food Contamination Risk Factors TransmissionThe seroepidemiology of hepatitis A depends on the biologic features of the agent. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is shed in the stool, and infectivity titers are significantly higher for stool than for other body materials. As a consequence, the predominant mode of spread is through fecal-oral routes. Common-source vectors include contaminated foods, water, and bivalve mollusks. Risk factors include contact with a person with hepatitis A, attendance or employment at a day care center, recent international travel, exposure to infected food or water during an outbreak, homosexual activity, and injecting drug use. No known risk factors are identified in many cases. Almost 40% of individuals in the United States are seropositive for prior HAV infection, and rates increase with age, perhaps reflecting an aging cohort of persons infected in earlier times when the infection was more common. Not unexpectedly, this decrease in current infection rates has increased the number of susceptible persons.*REVIEW; LITERATURE REVIEW; JOURNAL ARTICLE ?YKogawa, K. Nakata, S. Ukae, S. Adachi, N. Numata, K. Matson, D. O. Estes, M. K. Chiba, S.1996_Dot blot hybridization with a cDNA probe derived from the human calicivirus Sapporo 1982 strain 1949-1959.Archives of Virology14110Animal Viruses-General Caliciviridae (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Enzymes--Physiological Studies) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) microorganisms viruses Analytical Method Cdna Cdna Probe Complementary Dna Complementary Dna Probe Dot Blot Hybridization Elisa Human Calicivirus-Strain-sapporo 1982 Immunologic Method Methodology Molecular Genetics Rna-Dependent Rna PolymeraseA dot blot hybridization assay was developed for detection of human calicivirus/Sapporo/82/J (HuCV/Sa/82) or strains closely related to HuCV/Sa/82 in stool specimens. The cDNA derived from the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDRP) region of HuCV/Sa/82 was used as a positive probe and the pBR322 DNA as a negative control probe. Both probes were labeled with digoxigenin and the products of hybridization reaction were detected with an anti-digoxigenin antibody-alkaline phosphatase conjugate. This assay was specific for HuCV/Sa/82 and for HuCV antigenically related to HuCV/Sa/82. The lower limit of sensitivity of this assay was estimated to be about 10-5 physical particles or 10 pg of cDNA, similar to that of the previously developed ELISA for HuCV. In 1 273 stool specimens obtained from children with acute gastroenteritis in Sapporo, Japan, 110 (8.6%) contained small round structured viruses by EM and 23 (1.8%) were positive for HuCV antigenically related to HuCV/Sa/82 by either the hybridization assay or ELISA. A higher positive rate was obtained with the dot blot assay (21%) than by ELISA (10%), suggesting that the dot blot assay either detects HuCV more broadly than the ELISA or detects HuCV covered with fecal antibodies which interrupt antigen-antibody reactions in the ELISA. Negative results for detection of Norwalk virus (NV) cDNA and feline calicivirus (FCV) RNA by both this assay and the ELISA indicated that the HuCV/Sa/82 strain is distinct antigenically and genetically from NV and FCV.JOURNAL ARTICLEV?MLe Guyader, F. Miossec, L. Haugarreau, L. Dubois, E. Kopecka, H. Pommepuy, M.1998VRT-PCR evaluation of viral contamination in five shellfish beds over a 21-month period45-50.Water Science and Technology3812sCaliciviridae Picornaviridae Reoviridae-animal host only Enterobacteriaceae Invertebrata-Unspecified (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--General; Methods) Animal Viruses Bacteria Eubacteria Invertebrates Viruses Shellfish Beds Shellfish: Fecal Coliform Contamination, Shellfish, Vector Viral ContaminationFive shellfish beds were sampled for 21 months and evaluated for microbial contamination. Viral extraction was performed on dissected tissues and the clinically most important enteric viruses (hepatitis A virus, small round structured virus, rotavirus and enterovirus) were searched for by RT-PCR and hybridization. Among the 104 samples analysed, 66% were contaminated by at least one virus and 34% were negative for any virus. The two sites regularly contaminated by faecal coliforms had the highest percentage of viral contamination and HAV was detected only in these sites. However, sampling sites meeting the criteria for commercialization showed occasional viral contamination and viruses were detected in samples with no faecal coliform contamination.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?*ob=GatewayURL&*origin=CDL&*urlversion=3&*method=citationSearch&*volkey=02731223%2338%2345&*version=1&md5=ea64e3a785d6b29a602cb9f760693072 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02731223JOURNAL ARTICLE[?Lee, T. W. Kurtz, J. B.1981JSerial propagation of astrovirus in tissue culture with the aid of trypsin421-4Journal of General Virology57Pt 2Animal Astrovirus growth & development Cell Line Cells, Cultured Culture Media Haplorhini Human Papio Trypsin pharmacology Virus Cultivation Virus Replication Viruses, Unclassified growth & developmentAstrovirus could be serially passed at least 13 times in primary human embryo kidney (HEK) cells when 10 micrograms/ml of crystalline trypsin was incorporated in a serum-free maintenance medium. In the presence of trypsin the virus was also passed and adapted to a continuous line of rhesus monkey kidney cells (LLCMK2) and primary baboon kidney (PBK) cells in which it was passed 25 and 16 times respectively, without evidence of diminishing infectivity. Attempts to adapt the virus to other cell lines (Vero, Hep II, MRC-5, BHK and HRT-18) were unsuccessful. After 11 passages in HEK cells, a titration of virus grown in different concentrations of trypsin showed that virus propagation was still trypsin-dependent.Dec J Gen Virol?Linco, S. J. Grohmann, G. S.1980>The Darwin outbreak of oyster-associated viral gastroenteritis211-3Medical Journal of Australia15Australia Diarrhea etiology Disease Outbreaks Food Poisoning complications Food Poisoning etiology Gastroenteritis complications Gastroenteritis etiology Human Oysters Oysters microbiology Virus Diseases Virus Diseases microbiology Viruses, Unclassified isolation & purification"Approximately 60 persons attended a Christmas dinner, at a Darwin hotel, where oysters were served au natural as part of the menu. Twenty-five of the 28 persons who ate oysters developed symptoms of food poisoning--an attack rate of 89%. Of the 60 persons attending the dinner 44 were investigated. The incubation period and duration of illness were about 36 hours. Diarrhoea occurred in 100% of patients, with colic and nausea in 88% and 80% respectively. Half the patients complained of vomiting and headache. The storage temperature at which the oysters were kept was satisfactory and no bacterial pathogens were grown from the oyster and stool specimens. Electron microscopy revealed two distinct parvovirus-like particles in stool specimens, one of which was identified as Norwalk virus. Serological studies by immune electron microscopy showed the development of antibodies to the Norwalk-like particle by seven out of 10 patients. Confirmatory studies by radioimmunoassay showed a significant rise in antibody titre to Norwalk virus in seven patients.Mar 8 Med J AustD|7Liu, J. Wu, Q. Kou, X.2007{Development of a virus concentration method and its application for the detection of noroviruses in drinking water in China48-52 J Microbiol451China Norovirus/genetics/*isolation & purification RNA, Viral/isolation & purification Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Sensitivity and Specificity Virology/*methods *Water Microbiology Water SupplyFebA new procedure for the concentration of nonoviruses from water samples has been developed. This procedure (calcium flocculation-citrate dissolution method) uses the following steps: virus flocculation formed by treatment with 1 M CaCl2 and 1 M Na2HPO4, virus release by sodium citrate dissolution (0.3 M Na citrate, pH 3.5), and virus re-concentration by ultrafiltration. When reverse transcription (RT)-PCR was performed after the procedure, the overall detection sensitivity for seeded noroviruses in a one liter drinking water sample was as low as 1 RT-PCR unit, which is equal to a 10-6 dilution of the virus sample. This approach showed at least a 5-fold-higher sensitivity than the current method with its three steps of adsorption-elution-concentration. The newly developed procedure was used to test different brands of bottled drinking water from China for putative contamination with noroviruses. A total of 144 samples were analyzed; all of the samples were negative for norovirus specific nucleic acids.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=17342055Liu, Junyi Wu, Qingping Kou, Xiaoxia Evaluation Studies Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Korea (South) Journal of microbiology (Seoul, Korea) J Microbiol. 2007 Feb;45(1):48-52.1225-8873 (Print)17342055SWuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Science, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China. 2492 [pii]eng |71Tan, M. Zhong, W. Song, D. Thornton, S. Jiang, X.2004wE. coli-expressed recombinant norovirus capsid proteins maintain authentic antigenicity and receptor binding capability641-9 J Med Virol744 Antigens, Viral/genetics/*immunology/metabolism Capsid Proteins/genetics/*metabolism Escherichia coli/*genetics/metabolism Gene Expression Humans Norovirus/*chemistry/genetics/metabolism/pathogenicity Receptors, Virus/metabolism Recombinant Proteins/genetics/metabolismDecThe baculovirus expression system has been widely used to produce the capsid proteins of Norovirus (NV) and the proteins form virus-like particles (VLPs) that are useful in many studies, such as immunology, diagnosis, and host-receptor interaction. We report here the application of the E. coli expression system in the production of recombinant NV capsid proteins. In a direct comparison of a previous well-characterized NV strain (VA387), we have demonstrated that the E. coli-expressed capsid proteins maintain the same antigenicity and receptor binding specificity as that of the baculovirus-expressed capsid, although the E. coli-expressed VA387 proteins did not form VLPs. Using the E. coli-expression system, we characterized the receptor-binding patterns of three additional NV strains (OIF1998, Parris Island and VA115), in which OIF1998 binds to HBGA of nonsecretors but did not bind or binds weakly to the HBGA of secretors, as seen in strain VA207. Parris Island binds to HBGA of types A and B but not type O secretors and nonsecretors. VA115 did not show specific binding to any A, B, O secretor nor nonsecretor, which is also observed when the capsid protein of this strain was expressed in baculovirus. Our data indicate that VLP formation is not required for receptor binding, and that the bacteria expression system offers a simple alternative for large production of NV capsid protein for various research purposes, particularly for strains generating low yields in the insect cells.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15484274Tan, Ming Zhong, Weiming Song, Dan Thornton, Scott Jiang, Xi R01 ai37093-6/ai/niaid Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United States Journal of medical virology J Med Virol. 2004 Dec;74(4):641-9.0146-6615 (Print)15484274qDivision of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229-3039, USA.10.1002/jmv.20228eng?JLiu, B. L. Lambden, P. R. Guenther, H. Otto, P. Elschner, M. Clarke, I. N.1999dMolecular characterization of a bovine enteric calicivirus: Relationship to the Norwalk-like viruses819-825.Journal of Virology731Animal Viruses-General Bovidae (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--General; Methods) Animal Viruses Artiodactyls Viruses Stool SampleJena virus (JV) is a noncultivatable bovine enteric calicivirus associated with diarrhea in calves and was first described in Jena, Germany. The virus was serially passaged 11 times in colostrum-deprived newborn calves and caused diarrheal disease symptoms at each passage. The complete JV genome sequence was determined by using cDNA made from partially purified virus obtained from a single stool sample. JV has a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome which is 7,338 nucleotides in length, excluding the poly(A) tail. JV genome organization is similar to that of the human Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs), with three separate open reading frames (ORFs) and a 24-nucleotide sequence motif located at the 5' terminus of the genome and at the start of ORF 2. The polyprotein (ORF 1) consists of 1,680 amino acids and has the characteristic 2C helicase, 3C protease, and 3D RNA polymerase motifs also found in the NLVs. However, comparison of the N-terminal 100 amino acids of the JV polyprotein with those of the group 1 and group 2 NLVs showed a considerable divergence in sequence. The capsid protein (ORF 2) at 519 amino acids is smaller than that of all other caliciviruses. JV ORF 2 was translated in vitro to produce a 55-kDa protein that reacted with postinfection serum but not preinfection serum. Phylogenetic studies based on partial RNA polymerase sequences indicate that within the Caliciviridae JV is most closely related to the group 1 NLVs.?http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/full/73/1/819 http://jvi.asm.orgJOURNAL ARTICLE?/López-Sabater, E. I. Deng, M. Y. Cliver, D. O.1997~Magnetic immunoseparation PCR assay (MIPA) for detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in American oyster (Crassostrea virginica)101-104.Lett. Appl. Microbiol.242Picornaviridae Pelecypoda (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) (Invertebrata, Comparative and Experimental Morphology, Physiology and Pathology--Mollusca) animals invertebrates microorganisms mollusks viruses American Oyster Detection Method Equipment Host Human Anti-Hepatitis A Virus Igg Human Anti-Hepatitis A Virus Immunoglobulin G Immunological Method Magnetic Immunoseparation Pcr Assay Magnetic Immunoseparation Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay Methodology Pathogen Streptavidin Magnetic Bead Viral RnaIn order to detect the low numbers of hepatitis A viral (HAV) particles which may potentially be present in food and cause a serious illness, an original procedure which combines immunomagnetic separation and PCR is described. The use of streptavidin magnetic beads coated with biotinylated human anti-HAV IgG allows virus capture and the removal of the RT-PCR inhibitory compounds which usually are present in shellfish extracts. Following immunomagnetic capture, the separated HAV were lysed, the beads discarded, and the supernatant containing the viral RNA subjected to the RT-PCR protocol. Levels of HAV ranging from 10 to 10-5 pfu were successfully detected in artificially contaminated samples of shucked American oyster (Crassostrea virginica).JOURNAL ARTICLE?TMaguire, Alison J. Green, Jon Brown, David W. G. Desselberger, Ulrich Gray, James J.1999Molecular epidemiology of outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with small round-structured viruses in East Anglia, United Kingdom, during the 1996-1997 season81-89. Journal of Clinical Microbiology371Viruses-General (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) Viruses Molecular Epidemiology Nucleotide Sequence Viral GenomeRDuring the winter season from November 1996 to May 1997, 550 fecal specimens were submitted from 94 outbreaks of gastroenteritis occurring in East Anglia, United Kingdom. These specimens were tested for the presence of small round-structured viruses (SRSVs) by electron microscopy, reverse transcriptase PCR, or both methods. SRSVs were shown to be associated with 64 of 94 (68%) of these outbreaks, of which 16 (25%) outbreaks occurred at a single location (Southend) within the region. Twenty-four specimens from 13 of the 16 SRSV-positive outbreaks occurring in Southend were available for genomic analysis, in which divergence within the RNA polymerase region of the SRSV genome was investigated. A further 27 specimens from 17 other SRSV-associated outbreaks, occurring at different locations within East Anglia but at the same time as those at Southend, were also studied. Fifty of the total of 51 (98%) specimens studied were shown to belong to genogroup II, and within this genogroup, 49 of 50 (98%) specimens were shown to be Grimsby-like viruses, with only one Mexico-like strain. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of the Grimsby-like viruses indicated clusterings according to the geographical location of the outbreak. One specimen contained a virus belonging to genogroup I, and this had the greatest sequence identity (83%) with Southampton virus.>http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/content/full/37/1/81 http://jcm.asm.orgJOURNAL ARTICLE ?*Marx, F. E. Taylor, M. B. Grabow, W. O. K.1997eA comparison of two sets of primers for the RT-PCR detection of astroviruses in environmental samples257-262.Water S A (Pretoria)233Animal Viruses-General (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Enzymes--Methods) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Microbiology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Analytical Method Biobusiness Drinking Water Environmental Samples Enzyme Immunoassay Glass Wool Adsorption-Elution Technique Health Hazard Human Astrovirus Human Primary Liver Carcinoma Cells Methodology Pathogen Pollution Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction River Water Viral Contamination Viral Recovery Method0Human astroviruses (HAstV) are associated with sporadic cases and outbreaks of diarrhoea. The faecal-oral route is the predominant mode of transmission and contaminated drinking water and shellfish have been implicated as vehicles of transmission. Conventional diagnostic techniques have limited sensitivity and in this study two primer pairs, designated Jon and Mon, were compared for the detection of HAstV in environmental specimens by the reverse transcriptive-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Both primer pairs yielded positive RT-PCR products for the cell culture adapted HAstV-1 positive control. The Jon primers, however, also yielded positive results for other viruses as well as for a number of water samples. These data suggest that the regions amplified by the Jon primers are not unique to HAstV. The Mon primer pair yielded positive RT-PCR results only for HAstV serotypes 1 to 4 and some environmental samples. The results obtained using the Mon primer pair could be confirmed by either hybridisation with an oligonucleotide probe specific for HAstV or a HAstV specific enzyme immunoassay (EIA). RT-PCR, using the Mon primers, proved more sensitive than electron microscopy (EM), immune electron microscopy (IEM) and EIA for the direct detection of HAstV in river water. Cell culture amplification using the PLC/PRF/5 human primary liver carcinoma cell line improved the sensitivity of HAstV detection by EIA and RT-PCR, but not EM and IEM. The sensitivity of the RT-PCR assay system was enhanced by prior viral recovery by a glass wool adsorption-elution technique.JOURNAL ARTICLE?5McCaustland, K. A. Bi, S. Purdy, M. A. Bradley, D. W.1991Application of two RNA extraction methods prior to amplification of hepatitis E virus nucleic acid by the polymerase chain reaction331-42Journal of Virological Methods353kAdsorption Animal Base Sequence Blotting, Southern Comparative Study Disease Outbreaks Feces microbiology Hepatitis E Virus genetics Hepatitis E Virus immunology Hepatitis E Virus isolation & purification Hepatitis, Viral, Animal Human Male Molecular Sequence Data Polymerase Chain Reaction RNA, Viral blood RNA, Viral genetics RNA, Viral isolation & purificationBAmplification of the enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis virus (HEV) RNA using conventional reverse transcriptase reactions followed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the cDNA has not been successful. However, after application of two different RNA capture/extraction methods we were able to amplify HEV nucleic acid from clinical samples and specimens from experimentally infected animals. The first procedure, adapted from an immune electron microscopy (IEM) technique, incorporated an immunocapture step with concentration of the virus-antibody complexes by pelleting in a Beckman airfuge. In the second method, glass powder (or size-fractionated silicon dioxide) was used to capture the RNA from its surrounding milieu by adsorption of the nucleic acid to the silicate particles. Since conventional immunoassays for HEV antigen or antibody are not currently available, the use of these RNA extraction methods, coupled with PCR techniques, will be valuable in screening clinical specimens and in further defining the course of disease using animal infectivity studies.DecJ Virol Methods|7fLund, E. Hedstrom, C. E.1966QThe use of an aqueous polymer phase system for enterovirus isolations from sewage287-291Am. J. Epidemiol.842-Enterovirus/*isolation & purification *SewageSepdhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=4288190kLund, E Hedstrom, C E United states American journal of epidemiology Am J Epidemiol. 1966 Sep;84(2):287-91.0002-9262 (Print)4288190engD|7g(Lund, E. Hedstrom, C. E. Strannegard, O.1966XA comparison between virus isolations from sewage and from fecal specimens from patients282-286Am. J. Epidemiol.842uAdenoviridae/*isolation & purification Enterovirus/*isolation & purification Feces/*microbiology Microbiology *SewageSepdhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=4288189yLund, E Hedstrom, C E Strannegard, O United states American journal of epidemiology Am J Epidemiol. 1966 Sep;84(2):282-6.0002-9262 (Print)4288189eng?-Mele, A. Rosmini, F. Zampieri, A. Gill, O. N.1986rIntegrated epidemiological system for acute viral hepatitis in Italy (SEIEVA): description and preliminary results300-4 European Journal of Epidemiology24\Acute Disease Adolescence Adult Age Factors Child Child, Preschool Hepatitis A epidemiology Hepatitis A transmission Hepatitis B epidemiology Hepatitis B transmission Hepatitis C epidemiology Hepatitis C transmission Hepatitis, Viral, Human epidemiology Hepatitis, Viral, Human transmission Human Infant Italy Risk Shellfish Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tBAn integrated epidemiological system for the surveillance of acute viral hepatitis SEIEVA which linked notifications to available serology results and used a standard risk factor questionnaire is described. Results of over 1300 cases reported by 35 participating local health units (USL's) during the first 18 months of the programme are presented. Overall the annual reported incidence of acute viral hepatitis was 70 per 100,000. There were marked regional and age specific differences in the incidence of each type of viral hepatitis. The annual incidence per 100,000 of hepatitis A in southern children was 133 while in northern young adults the incidence of hepatitis B was 88 and hepatitis non-A non-B was 43. The possible roles of shellfish consumption in the transmission of non-A non-B hepatitis at all ages were highlighted.DecEur J EpidemiolI? Meng, J. Dubreuil, P. Pillot, J.1997UA new PCR-based seroneutralization assay in cell culture for diagnosis of hepatitis E 1373-1377 Journal of Clinical Microbiology356Animal Viruses-General Primates-Unspecified (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Enzymes--Methods) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Serodiagnosis) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms nonhuman mammals nonhuman primates nonhuman vertebrates primates vertebrates viruses Analytical Method Cell Culture Culture Method Diagnosis Diagnostic Method Digestive System Disease Elisa Hepatitis E Host Infection Methodology Pathogen Patient Pcr-Based Seroneutralization Assay Serodiagnostic Method Viral DiseaseA new method for the serological diagnosis of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection based on neutralization of the virus in cell culture was developed. The test involves a short incubation of the virus in the presence of the serum sample to be tested and permissive cells. With viral replication being limited and without a cytopathic effect, viral growth in cells is evaluated by reverse transcription and PCR. The specificity of the test was established by studying sera from healthy individuals and patients with hepatitis living in France, where autochthonous hepatitis E is unknown. The kinetics and sensitivity of antibody detection were evaluated during the experimental infection of monkeys. Neutralizing antibodies were found in 79% of patients during an outbreak of hepatitis E and in 43% of patients with sporadic, acute non-A, non-B (without anti-hepatitic C virus antibodies) hepatitis. This neutralization assay is proposed as a confirmatory test for the available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which is now recognized as giving many false-positive reactions, and to improve identification of new hepatitis viruses since false-negative reactions with HEV ELISA are also encountered.3243370>?Meng, X. J. Dea, S. Engle, R. E. Friendship, R. Lyoo, Y. S. Sirinarumitr, T. Urairong, K. Wang, D. Wong, D. Yoo, D. Zhang, Y. Purcell, R. H. Emerson, S. U.1999Prevalence of antibodies to the hepatitis E virus in pigs from countries where hepatitis E is common or is rare in the human population297-302Journal of Medical Virology593xAge Factors Animal Antibodies, Viral blood Canada epidemiology China epidemiology Disease Reservoirs veterinary Hepatitis E epidemiology Hepatitis E immunology Hepatitis E transmission Hepatitis E veterinary Hepatitis E Virus immunology Human IgG blood Korea epidemiology Seroepidemiologic Studies Swine virology Swine Diseases virology Thailand epidemiology Zoonoses virology4Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a very important public health concern in many developing countries where epidemics of hepatitis E are common. Sporadic cases of clinical hepatitis E not only occur in these countries but also occur uncommonly in patients with no known epidemiological exposure to HEV in industrialized countries. The source of infection in industrialized countries is unknown but it has been suggested that animals might serve as a reservoir for HEV in both settings. We recently identified and characterized an HEV strain (swine HEV) that infects large numbers of pigs in the United States. To assess the potential of pigs to serve as a global reservoir of HEV, we measured the prevalence of HEV antibodies in pigs in two countries where hepatitis E is endemic and two countries where it is not. Swine herds in all four countries contained many pigs that were seropositive for IgG anti-HEV, although the percentage of seropositive pigs varied greatly from herd to herd. A very limited number of pig handlers in the two endemic countries were also tested and most of them were found to be seropositive for HEV. The results from this study suggest that hepatitis E is enzootic in pigs regardless of whether HEV is endemic in the respective human population. J. Med. Virol. 59:297-302, 1999. Published 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.http://mddb.wiley.com/db/mdresolve.cgi?issn=0146-6615&volume=59&issue=3&first*page=297 http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0146-6615Nov Access restricted. J Med Virol1481719>?}Meng, X. J. Purcell, R. H. Halbur, P. G. Lehman, J. R. Webb, D. M. Tsareva, T. S. Haynes, J. S. Thacker, B. J. Emerson, S. U.1997HA novel virus in swine is closely related to the human hepatitis E virus 9860-9865Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A.9418Amino Acid Sequence Animal Antibodies, Viral analysis Antibodies, Viral immunology Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Hepatitis E Virus genetics Hepatitis E Virus immunology Hepatitis E Virus isolation & purification Human Molecular Sequence Data Sequence Alignment Swine virologyA novel virus, designated swine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV), was identified in pigs. Swine HEV crossreacts with antibody to the human HEV capsid antigen. Swine HEV is a ubiquitous agent and the majority of swine >/=3 months of age in herds from the midwestern United States were seropositive. Young pigs naturally infected by swine HEV were clinically normal but had microscopic evidence of hepatitis, and developed viremia prior to seroconversion. The entire ORFs 2 and 3 were amplified by reverse transcription-PCR from sera of naturally infected pigs. The putative capsid gene (ORF2) of swine HEV shared about 79-80% sequence identity at the nucleotide level and 90-92% identity at the amino acid level with human HEV strains. The small ORF3 of swine HEV had 83-85% nucleotide sequence identity and 77-82% amino acid identity with human HEV strains. Phylogenetic analyses showed that swine HEV is closely related to, but distinct from, human HEV strains. The discovery of swine HEV not only has implications for HEV vaccine development, diagnosis, and biology, but also raises a potential public health concern for zoonosis or xenozoonosis following xenotransplantation with pig organs.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/Entrez/referer?/htbin-post/Entrez/query?db=n&form=6&uid=gb%7CAF011921%7C http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/18/9860 http://www.pnas.orgSep 2Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2707250C?Moe, C. L. Allen, J. R. Monroe, S. S. Gary, H. E., Jr. Humphrey, C. D. Herrmann, J. E. Blacklow, N. R. Carcamo, C. Koch, M. Kim, K. H. et al.,1991ODetection of astrovirus in pediatric stool samples by immunoassay and RNA probe2390-5 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2911_Astrovirus genetics Astrovirus isolation & purification Avidin Biotin Child, Preschool Comparative Study Evaluation Studies Feces microbiology Human Immunoenzyme Techniques Immunoenzyme Techniques statistics & numerical data Infant RNA Probes Sensitivity and Specificity Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. Virus Diseases diagnosis Virus Diseases microbiologyTwo new astrovirus assays, a rapid biotin-avidin enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and RNA probe hybridization, were developed and compared with an established astrovirus assay, an indirect EIA, and immune electron microscopy. Sensitivity and specificity were evaluated by using a screening panel of 22 astrovirus-positive and 305 astrovirus-negative fecal specimens. The biotin-avidin assay was equivalent in performance to the reference indirect assay, and both could detect about 10 ng of viral protein. Although the probe was more sensitive than either EIA and could detect higher dilutions of virus in tissue culture and stool specimens, it did not detect more astrovirus-positive fecal specimens. Of the 22 astrovirus-positive specimens detected by the EIAs, 20 were confirmed by immune electron microscopy with hyperimmune rabbit antiserum. To determine the usefulness of EIAs for large epidemiologic studies, EIAs were used to screen 1,289 stool specimens from three studies of children with and without diarrhea. Astrovirus was detected in 3.5% of specimens from children with diarrhea and 1.9% of specimens from those without diarrhea. Our results indicate that the biotin-avidin EIA is an efficient, sensitive, and specific method for routinely screening large numbers of fecal samples and that its application in epidemiologic studies may yield higher rates of astrovirus infection than have been found previously by other methods.NovJ Clin Microbiol?Muir, Peter Kammerer, Ulrike Korn, Klaus Mulders, Mick N. Poyry, Tuija Weissbrich, Benedikt Kandolf, Reinhard Cleator, Graham M. Van Loon, Anton M.1998IMolecular typing of enteroviruses: Current status and future requirements202-227.Clinical Microbiology Reviews111_Picornaviridae (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) Animal Viruses Viruses Molecular Typing Open Reading Frame Viral Genome Structure?http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/11/1/202 http://cmr.asm.org*REVIEW; LITERATURE REVIEW; JOURNAL ARTICLE?Murrin, K. Slade, J.1997lRapid detection of viable enteroviruses in water by tissue culture and semi-nested polymerase chain reaction429-432.Water Science and Technology3511-12Picornaviridae (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Enzymes--Methods) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Microbiology) microorganisms viruses Detection Method Enterovirus Viability Environmental Water Samples Methodology Pollution Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Semi-Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction Tissue CultureAA method has been developed for the detection of waterborne viruses which combines the speed of pCR techniques with the assurance of viability given by tissue culture. Environmental water samples are concentrated by adsorption/elution and protein precipitation, subjected to a brief period of culture and the tissue culture fluid assayed for the presence of viruses. RT-PCR was carried out with the EZ rTth DNA polymerase system. When applied to environmental samples results comparable to those obtained by traditional methods were obtained within 3 days of receipt of sample.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?*ob=GatewayURL&*origin=CDL&*urlversion=3&*method=citationSearch&*volkey=02731223%2335%23429&*version=1&md5=a1705330afd92b4c9f0434aca68b77d8 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02731223JOURNAL ARTICLEE?*Nairn, C. Galbraith, D. N. Clements, G. B.1995XComparison of coxsackie B neutralisation and enteroviral PCR in chronic fatigue patients310-313.Journal of Medical Virology464Picornaviridae (Behavioral Biology--Human Behavior) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Enzymes--Methods) (Psychiatry--Psychophysiology) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses B Antibody Neutralization Nucleic Acid Polymerase Chain ReactionCoxsackie B enteroviruses have been implicated repeatedly as agents associated with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). The objective of this study was to compare the serological evidence for the presence of Coxsackie B virus neutralising antibody, with the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detecting a portion of the 5' nontranslated region (NTR) of the enterovirus genome. Serum samples from 100 chronic fatigue patients and from 100 healthy comparison patients were used in this study. In the CFS study group, 42% patients were positive for enteroviral sequences by PCR, compared to only 9% of the comparison group. Using the neutralisation assay, 34% of study patients were positive, compared to 41% of comparison patients. In the study group, 66/100 patient results correlated, i.e., they were either positive/positive or negative/negative for both tests. Of those that did not correlate, the majority were PCR-positive/Coxsackie B antibody-negative (21/34). In the comparison group, 58/100 patient results correlated. Of those that did not, the majority were PCR-negative/Coxsackie B antibody-positive (37/42). The Coxsackie B antibody neutralisation assay was not able to differentiate the CFS study group from the healthy comparison group, and thus the clinical relevance of this assay may be questioned. The PCR assay did differentiate the two groups with significantly more CFS patients having evidence of enterovirus than the comparison group.JOURNAL ARTICLE ?YNakata, S. Kogawa, K. Numata, K. Ukae, S. Adachi, N. Matson, D. O. Estes, M. K. Chiba, S.19966The epidemiology of human calicivirus/Sapporo/82/Japan263-270.Archives of Virology Supplement012oCaliciviridae (Microscopy Techniques--Electron Microscopy) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Techniques) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Public Health: Microbiology) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Analytical Method Digestive System Disease Electron Microscopy Epidemiology Genetic Method Host Infection Microscopy Method Pathogen Rna-Dependent Rna Polymerase Strain-Sapporo/82/Japan Strain-Snow Mountain Agent Viral Disease Viral GastroenteritisBased on genome analysis of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase region, it has been proposed that human caliciviruses (HuCV) can be classified into at least three genogroups: genogroup I is represented by Norwalk virus (NV), genogroup II by Snow Mountain agent (SMA) and genogroup III by HuCV/Sapporo/82/Japan (HuCV/Sa/82/J) virus. HuCV/Sa/82/J strain is genetically unique and more closely related to animal caliciviruses than are other known HuCVs, such as NV and SMA. HuCV/Sa/82/J strain was detected in four outbreaks of HuCV gastroenteritis occurring between 1977 and 1982 in an infant home in Sapporo. The HuCVs detected from these four outbreaks all showed a typical "Star of David" configuration by electron microscopy (EM), and they were identical antigenically and genetically. This strain has also been detected in other prefectures in Japan, as well as in the USA, UK, Saudi Arabia and Kenya. Seroepidemiological studies have shown a worldwide distribution of this virus, including Japan, USA, UK, Southeast Asia, Canada, China and Kenya. This virus has been circulating in Sapporo for at least 19 years (1977-1995). HuCV/Sa/82/J strain is thought to be one of the common causes of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. The HuCV/Sa/82/J strain has been detected mainly in infants. Age-related prevalence of antibody to this strain also shows that infections commonly occur in children less than 5 years old, although viruses in the NV and SMA genogroups commonly infect adults. The pattern of acquisition of antibodies to strain HuCV/Sa/82/J is similar to that of other common viral infections. HuCV/Sa/82/J strain is unique virologically and clinically among caliciviruses.JOURNAL ARTICLE ?Noel, Jacqueline S. Ando, Tamie Leite, Jose Paulo Green, Kim Y. Dingle, Kate E. Estes, Mary K. Seto, Yoshiyuki Monroe, Stephan S. Glass, Roger I.1997Correlation of patient immune responses with genetically characterized small round-structured viruses involved in outbreaks of nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis in the United States, 1990 to 1995372-383.Journal of Medical Virology534>Caliciviridae (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) Animal Viruses Viruses Genetic Homology Immune ResponsesSmall round-structured viruses (SRSVs) are a genetically and antigenically diverse group of caliciviruses that are the most common cause of outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis. We have applied both molecular techniques to characterize SRSVs in fecal specimens and serologic assays using four different expressed SRSV antigens to examine the distribution of outbreak strains in the United States and determine if the immune responses of patients were strain specific. Strains from 23 outbreaks of SRSV gastroenteritis were characterized by reverse transcription-PCR and nucleotide sequencing of a 277-base region of the capsid gene. These strains segregated into two distinct genogroups, I and II, comprising four and six clusters of strains respectively, each representing a distinct phylogenetic lineage. Serum IgG responses in patients were measured by enzyme immunoassay using expressed capsid antigens of Norwalk virus (NV), Toronto virus (TV), Hawaii virus (HV), and Lordsdale virus (LV), representing four of the 10 clusters. While strains in genogroups I and II were antigenically distinct, within genogroups, the specificity of the immune response varied greatly. Patients infected with genogroup I strains which had as much as 38.5% aa divergence from NV demonstrated relatively homologous seroresponses to the single NV antigen. In contrast, in genogroup II, homologous seroresponses to TV and HV were only present when the infecting strains showed less than 6.5% aa divergence from these antigens. These results suggest that TV and HV represent not only separate genetic clusters in genogroup II but also separate antigenic groups, each of which is related but distinguishable. In addition, two genetically distinct SRSV strains were identified for which we have no homologous antigen. This study suggests that while current molecular diagnostics are capable of detecting the full range of SRSVs, additional expressed antigens will be required to detect an immune response to SRSV infection caused by all the antigenically diverse strains.http://mddb.wiley.com/db/mdresolve.cgi?issn=0146-6615&volume=53&issue=4&first*page=372 http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0146-6615"JOURNAL ARTICLE Access restricted. )~?Noel, J. S. Liu, B. J. Humphrey, C. D. Rodriguez, E. M. Lambden, P. R. Clarke, I. N. Dwyer, D. M. Ando, T. Glass, R. I. Monroe, S. S.1997Parkville virus: A novel genetic variant of human calicivirus in the Sapporo virus clade, associated with an outbreak of gastroenteritis in adults173-178Journal of Medical Virology5227Caliciviridae (General Biology--Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Terminology) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Adult Digestive System Disease Foodborne Gastroenteritis Genome Manchester Virus Molecular Genetics Norwalk-Like Viruses Novel Genetic Variant Parkville Virus Patient Sapporo Virus Sequence Analysis Small Round-Structured Viruses Systematics u73124This report describes the characterization of Parkville virus, the etiologic agent of an outbreak of foodborne gastroenteritis, that has the morphology of a calicivirus and genetic properties that distinguish it from previously identified strains in the Sapporo/Manchester virus clade. Sequence analysis of the Parkville virus genome showed it contained the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase motifs GLPSG and YGDD characteristic of members of the family Caliciviridae with an organization identical to that reported for the Manchester virus where the capsid region of the polyprotein is fused to the RNA polymerase. Parkville virus however, demonstrates considerable sequence divergence from both the Manchester and Sapporo caliciviruses, providing the first indications that genetic diversity exists within caliciviruses of this previously homogeneous clade. On the basis of recent advances in the genetic characterization of members of the family Caliciviridae, we propose a new interim phylogehetic classification system in which Parkville virus would be included with Manchester and Sapporo virus as a separate group distinct from the small round-structured viruses (Norwalk-like viruses) that also cause diarrhea in humans.http://mddb.wiley.com/db/mdresolve.cgi?issn=0146-6615&volume=52&issue=2&first*page=173 http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0146-6615,; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA Access restricted.3281581?MNorcott, J. P. Green, J. Lewis, D. Estes, M. K. Barlow, K. I. Brown, D. W. G.1994IGenomic diversity of small round structured viruses in the United Kingdom280-286.Journal of Medical Virology443Animal Viruses-General Caliciviridae (General Biology--Taxonomy, Nomenclature and Terminology) (Evolution) (Biochemistry--Comparative Biochemistry, General) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--General and Comparative Studies; Coenzymes) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--Bacterial, Viral and Fungal) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Antigenic Type Correlation Genomic Groups Phylogenetic Relationship Rna Polymerase Gene Snow Mountain Agent Southampton Virus Strain Uk1 Strain Uk2 Strain Uk3 Strain Uk4Fifty-two faecal specimens collected in the United Kingdom between 1986 and 1992, which contained small round structured virus (SRSV) particles, were tested by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assays using two primer pairs derived from sequences of Snow Mountain Agent and Norwalk virus. There was poor correlation between results obtained with each primer pair. Twenty specimens (38%) gave positive bands with SM51/31 primers and 18 (34%) were positive with SM52/32 primers, with a total of 30 specimens (57.7%) giving amplification products of the expected size with one or both primer pairs. Genomic variation was investigated by sequencing a 266 bp region of the RNA polymerase gene from nine strains which had been antigenically typed by solid phase immune electron microscopy (SPIEM). RNA sequence identities ranged from 53 to 99%. Three genomic groups were suggested by phylogenic analysis, the first of which contained Norwalk virus, Southampton virus, and strains typed by SPIEM as SRSV UK2. The second contained Snow Mountain agent and strains typed as either SRSV UK3 or UK4. The third contained strains typed as SRSV UK1 and strains untypeable by SPIEM. Some correlation was demonstrated when antigen typing by SPIEM and phylogenic grouping based on sequence data were compared.JOURNAL ARTICLEn?VO'Mahony, M. C. Gooch, C. D. Smyth, D. A. Thrussell, A. J. Bartlett, C. L. Noah, N. D.1983!Epidemic hepatitis A from cockles518-20Lancet18323Adolescence Adult Child Child, Preschool Cookery standards Disease Outbreaks epidemiology England Female Food Poisoning complications Heat Hepatitis A epidemiology Hepatitis A etiology Human Infant Male Middle Age Mollusca Mollusca microbiology ShellfishEarly in 1981, cases of hepatitis possibly associated with the consumption of cockles were reported mainly from south-east England. A case-control study was undertaken in 19 local authority districts. Between Nov. 1, 1980, and April 30, 1981, 424 cases of infective jaundice were formally notified and case-finding yielded 26 additional cases. 42.6% of those with hepatitis and 17.5% of the controls reported consumption of cockles. There was a statistically significant association between infective jaundice and the consumption of cockles but not other sea foods. The cockles had probably been insufficiently processed and stricter controls on treatment of such shellfish are needed.Mar 5Lancet? Otsu, Ryuichi1999Outbreaks of gastroenteritis caused by SRSVs from 1987 to 1992 in Kyushu, Japan: Four outbreaks associated with oyster consumption175-180. European Journal of Epidemiology152Caliciviridae (Public Health: Epidemiology--Miscellaneous) (Microscopy Techniques--General and Special Techniques) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods--General) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--General) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) Animal Viruses Viruses Raw Oyster: Disease Vector, ShellfishFrom 1987 to 1992, 18 outbreaks of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis occurred in Kyushu district. The most common symptoms were diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal cramp. Small round structured viruses (SRSVs) were detected in 52 (44.8%) of 116 stool samples from 17 outbreaks by the electron microscopy (EM) method, and a significant increase in the antibody level was noted in 42 (80.7%) of 52 paired serum samples from 12 outbreaks by the immune electron microscopy (IEM) method and in 18 (51.4%) of 35 samples from 8 outbreaks by the western blot (WB) method. However, according to the WB method, antigen-antibody reaction was not observed to reference antigen strips (SRSV-9/Tokyo 86-510, 63 kDa) in three of the 8 outbreaks. The detected virus was regarded as an etiologic agent for these outbreaks. In four of 5 outbreaks which appeared associated with eating raw oysters, there was a close relation between SRSV infection and consumption of raw oysters.ihttp://www.wkap.nl/art.pdf?issn=0393-2990&volume=15&page=175 http://www.wkap.nl/journalhome.htm/0393-2990"JOURNAL ARTICLE Access restricted. ?>Panda, S. K. Ansari, I. H. Durgapal, H. Agrawal, S. Jameel, S.2000QThe in vitro-synthesized RNA from a cDNA clone of hepatitis E virus is infectious 2430-2437Journal of Virology745|Animal Viruses-General Cercopithecidae (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Studies: Nucleic Acids Purines and Pyrimidines) (Replication, Transcription, Translation) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Genetics of Bacteria and Viruses) (In Vitro Studies, Cellular and Subcellular) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) Animal Viruses Nonhuman Primates Viruses Indian Epidemics Genomes Mortality Transcription Viral Replication\Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important etiological agent of epidemic and sporadic hepatitis, which is endemic to the Indian subcontinent and prevalent in most of the developing parts of the world. The infection is often associated with acute liver failure and high mortality, particularly in pregnant women. In order to develop methods of intervention, it is essential to understand the biology of the virus. This is particularly important as no reliable in vitro culture system is available. We have constructed a cDNA clone encompassing the complete HEV genome from independently characterized subgenomic fragments of an Indian epidemic isolate. Transfection studies were carried out with HepG2 cells using in vitro-transcribed RNA from this full-length HEV cDNA clone. The presence of negative-sense RNA, indicative of viral replication, was demonstrated in the transfected cells by strand-specific reverse transcription-PCR and slot blot hybridization. The viral proteins pORF2 and pORF3 and processed components of the pORF1 polyprotein (putative methyltransferase, helicase, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) were identified in the transfected cells by metabolic pulse-labeling with (35S)methionine-cysteine, followed by immunoprecipitation with respective antibodies. The expression of viral proteins in the transfected cells was also demonstrated by immunofluorescence microscopy. Viral replication was detected in the transfected cells up to 33 days posttransfection (six passages). The culture supernatant from the transfected cells was able to produce HEV infection in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) following intravenous injection, indicating the generation of viable HEV particles following transfection of cells with in vitro-synthesized genomic RNA. This transient cell culture model using in vitro-transcribed RNA should facilitate our understanding of HEV biology.@http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/full/74/5/2430 http://jvi.asm.org5509887G?TPebody, R. G. Leino, T. Ruutu, P. Kinnunen, L. Davidkin, I. Nohynek, H. Leinikki, P.1998QFoodborne outbreaks of hepatitis A in a low endemic country: An emerging problem?55-59.Epidemiology and Infection1201jPicornaviridae (Public Health: Epidemiology--Miscellaneous) (Biophysics--General Biophysical Studies) (Enzymes--General and Comparative Studies; Coenzymes) (Food Technology--General; Methods) (Digestive System--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--General) Animal Viruses VirusesThis paper describes 2 outbreaks of hepatitis A infection in Finland, a very low endemic area of hepatitis A infection, where a large proportion of the population is now susceptible to infection by hepatitis A virus (HAV). The first outbreak involved people attending several schools and day-care centres; the second employees of several bank branches in a different city. The initial investigation revealed that both were related to food distributed widely from separate central kitchens. Two separate case-control studies implicated imported salad food items as the most likely vehicle of infection. HAV was detected in the stool of cases from both outbreaks using reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; however, comparison of viral genome sequences proved that the viruses were of different origin and hence the outbreaks, although occurring simultaneously, were not linked. Foodborne outbreaks of HAV may represent an increasing problem in populations not immune to HAV.JOURNAL ARTICLE?Perrett, K. Kudesia, G.1995'Gastroenteritis associated with oystersR153-4'Communicable Disease Report. Cdr Review510Animal Cohort Studies Cookery Disease Outbreaks England Food Inspection Gastroenteritis microbiology Human Oysters microbiology Questionnaires Students UniversitiesAn outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred in catering students attending three classes at a Yorkshire college in February 1994. The three classes were held on the Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday of the same week and had identical menus. Thirty-seven of the 90 students were affected. A cohort study, with a 94% response rate, showed a highly significant association of illness with the consumption of raw oysters grown in English coastal waters.Sep 15Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev ?GPontefract, Roderic D. Bishai, F. R. Hockin, J. Bergeron, G. Parent, R.1993\Norwalk-like viruses associated with a gastroenteritis outbreak following oyster consumption604-607.Journal of Food Protection567UAnimal Viruses-General (Microscopy Techniques--Electron Microscopy) (Ecology; Environmental Biology--Wildlife Management-Aquatic) (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods--General) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--General) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease) (Nutrition--General Dietary Studies) (Food Technology--Fish and Other Marine and Freshwater Products) (Food Technology--Evaluations of Physical and Chemical Properties (1970- )) (Food Technology--Preparation, Processing and Storage (1970- )) (Digestive System--Pathology) (Toxicology--Foods, Food Residues, Additives and Preservatives) (Microbiological Apparatus, Methods and Media) (Microbiological Ultrastructure (1972- )) (Virology--Animal Host Viruses) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--General; Methods and Techniques) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Environmental Health--Air, Water and Soil Pollution) (Public Health: Disease Vectors--Inanimate) (Public Health: Microbiology) (Food and Industrial Microbiology--Food and Beverage Spoilage and Contamination) animals bacteria chordates eubacteria humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Food Contamination Food Products Growth Rate Lag Phase Osmoregulation+In late October 1991, an outbreak of gastroenteritis, following the consumption of raw oysters involving more than 200 people, was reported in five locations in Quebec, Canada. Bacteriological analysis of the oysters involved indicated low levels of fecal coliforms, but direct electron microscopy of stool samples obtained from two people involved in the outbreak revealed that both contained 27-34 nm, small, round Norwalk-like viruses. Immunoelectron microscopy, using acute sera obtained from these individuals and convalescent serum from another person related to the outbreak, revealed antibody coatings on these Norwalk-like viruses with all three sera. Solid-phase immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that these viruses were also antigenically similar or related to a Norwalk-like virus isolated as the cause of a gastroenteritis outbreak in a home for the aged between December 1988 and January 1989 in Thunder Bay, Ontario. From these findings and the symptoms of the illness, the Norwalk-like virus was considered as the causal agent of the outbreak due to the consumption of contaminated oysters. How the oysters became contaminated was not determined. Oysters harvested from the areas initially thought to have been the origin of the implicated shellfish were tested for the presence of viral fecal indicators using tissue culture and electron microscopy with negative results. It is most likely that the implicated lot also contained oysters harvested from another area, also open, but which was downstream from an identified source of human fecal contamination.JOURNAL ARTICLE޾?Pringle, C. R.1998Virus taxonomy--San Diego 19981449-59Archives of Virology1437%Classification Viruses classificationhttp://link.springer-ny.com/link/service/journals/00705/bibs/8143007/81431449.htm http://link.springer-ny.com/link/service/journals/00705/papers/8143007/81431449.pdf http://link.springer-ny.com/link/service/journals/00705/index.htmlAccess restricted. Arch VirolQ|7oWait, D. A. Sobsey, M. D.1983VMethod for recovery of enteric viruses from estuarine sediments with chaotropic agents379-85Appl Environ Microbiol462Enterovirus/*isolation & purification Enterovirus B, Human/isolation & purification Flocculation Indicators and Reagents Nitrates Poliovirus/isolation & purification Potassium Chloride Rotavirus/isolation & purification Sodium Chloride *Soil Microbiology Solubility *Water MicrobiologyAugAn evaluation was made of the ability of chaotropes, low-molecular-weight ionic compounds which enhance the solubilization of hydrophobic compounds in water, to improve the recovery of enteric viruses from highly organic estuarine sediments. Chaotropic agents alone were poor eluents of polioviruses from sediment but were effective when combined with 3% beef extract. Chaotropes of lower potency, NaNO3, NaCl, and KCl, were more efficient eluents than the stronger chaotropes, guanidium hydrochloride or sodium trichloroacetate. The most effective eluent was 2 M NaNO3 in 3% beef extract at pH 5.5, which eluted 71% of sediment-associated polioviruses. Efficient concentration of the sodium nitrate-beef extract eluate by organic flocculation required the addition of the antichaotrope (NH4)2SO4 to a 2 M concentration and Cat-Floc T (Calgon, Pittsburgh, Pa.) a cationic polyelectrolyte, to a 0.01% concentration. Dialysis of the final concentrate was necessary to reduce salts to nontoxic levels before assay in cell cultures. Trials with highly organic estuarine sediment seeded with high or low numbers of poliovirus 1, echovirus 1, or rotavirus SA-11 demonstrated the superiority of this method over two other methods currently in use.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6312884Wait, D A Sobsey, M D 5 ko4 es00026/es/niehs Ai17277/ai/niaid Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1983 Aug;46(2):379-85.0099-2240 (Print)6312884eng?Saito, Kunihiro Ushijima, Hiroshi Nishio, Osamu Oseto, Mituaki Motohiro, Hiroshi Ueda, Yuichi Takagi, Michio Nakaya, Shigekazu Ando, Tamie Glass, Rodger Zaiman, Kohji1995}Detection of astroviruses from stool samples in Japan using reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction amplification825-828.Microbiology and Immunology3910Animal Viruses-General (Biochemistry--Biochemical Methods: Proteins, Peptides and Amino Acids) (Biophysics--Molecular Properties and Macromolecules) (Enzymes--Methods) (Pathology, General and Miscellaneous--Diagnostic) (Digestive System--Physiology and Biochemistry) (Blood, Blood-Forming Organs and Body Fluids--Blood and Lymph Studies) (Immunology and Immunochemistry--General; Methods) (Medical and Clinical Microbiology--Virology) (Public Health: Epidemiology--Communicable Diseases) animals chordates humans mammals microorganisms primates vertebrates viruses Analytical Method Diagnostic Method Enzyme Immunoassay Epidemiology Immunological Method Screening SerotyperWe developed a reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method for detecting astrovirus serotypes 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 (but not serotype 4). Furthermore, we developed the specific primers for detecting serotypes 1 and 2, the most predominant serotypes in the world. Sensitivity of the first PCR with serotype common primers was about 10 times higher than that of enzyme immunoassay with monoclonal antibody (EIA-MAb). Sensitivity of the second PCR with the serotype-specific primers was even higher. The RT-PCR method was useful for detecting astrovimses from clinical samples, especially serotypes 1 and 2.JOURNAL ARTICLE7?Sharp, T. W. Hyams, K. C. Watts, D. Trofa, A. F. Martin, G. J. Kapikian, A. Z. Green, K. Y. Jiang, X. Estes, M. K. Waack, M. et al.,1995fEpidemiology of Norwalk virus during an outbreak of acute gastroenteritis aboard a US aircraft carrier61-7Journal of Medical Virology451Acute Disease Adolescence Adult Antibodies, Viral blood Caliciviridae Infections epidemiology Caliciviridae Infections pathology Caliciviridae Infections transmission Disease Outbreaks Gastroenteritis epidemiology Gastroenteritis pathology Gastroenteritis virology Human Incidence Male Middle Age Military Personnel Naval Medicine Norwalk Virus Norwalk Virus immunology Risk Factors Ships Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United States epidemiologyA large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred over a 5-week period aboard an aircraft carrier. The estimated cumulative attack rate was 13% among the 4,500-man crew. Eight percent of the crew sought medical attention, nearly all of whom missed 1 day or more of work. The risk of developing illness was 2 to 3 times greater for individuals living in more crowded sleeping quarters (> 50 persons per compartment). Occurrence of gastroenteritis was associated with a fourfold or more rise in Norwalk virus antibody levels, as measured by an enzyme-linked immunoassay utilizing a baculovirus expressed recombinant antigen. In addition, 27 nm Norwalk virus-like particles were visualized in two of six stools examined by immune electron microscopy. The presence of a low (< 1:50) or a high (> or = 1:6,400) pre-illness antibody level was associated with a lower incidence of illness. This investigation indicates that Norwalk virus can adversely impact operations of a military vessel and that crowding is a major risk factor in transmission.Jan J Med Virol ]GV_|7.Stine, S. W. Song, I. Choi, C. Y. Gerba, C. P.2005Application of microbial risk assessment to the development of standards for enteric pathogens in water used to irrigate fresh produce913-8 J Food Prot685_Agriculture/methods Capsicum/*microbiology Coliphages/*growth & development/isolation & purification Colony Count, Microbial Consumer Product Safety Cucumis melo/*microbiology Escherichia coli/*growth & development/isolation & purification Food Contamination Food Microbiology Humans Irrigation Lettuce/*microbiology Risk Assessment Water MicrobiologyMayWMicrobial contamination of the surfaces of cantaloupe, iceberg lettuce, and bell peppers via contact with irrigation water was investigated to aid in the development of irrigation water quality standards for enteric bacteria and viruses. Furrow and subsurface drip irrigation methods were evaluated with the use of nonpathogenic surrogates, coliphage PRD1, and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. The concentrations of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Salmonella in irrigation water necessary to achieve a 1:10,000 annual risk of infection, the acceptable level of risk used for drinking water by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, were calculated with a quantitative microbial risk assessment approach. These calculations were based on the transfer of the selected nonpathogenic surrogates to fresh produce via irrigation water, as well as previously determined preharvest inactivation rates of pathogenic microorganisms on the surfaces of fresh produce. The risk of infection was found to be variable depending o?*Sobsey, M. D. Carrick, R. J. Jensen, H. R.19789Improved methods for detecting enteric viruses in oysters121-8&Applied and Environmental Microbiology361_Adenoviridae isolation & purification Adenoviruses, Si