PKL-: cVVrefs.MYDW?5Abbaszadegan, M. M. S. Huber C. P. Gerba I. L. Pepper1993LDetection of enteroviruses in groundwater with the polymerase chain reaction 1318-1324&Applied and Environmental Microbiology595CStandard methods for the detection of enteroviruses in environmental samples involve the use of cell culture, which is expensive and time-consuming. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an attractive method for the detection of enteroviruses in water because primary cell culture is not needed and the increased sensitivity of PCR allows detection of the low numbers of target DNAs and RNAs usually found in environmental samples. However, environmental samples often contain substances that inhibit PCR amplification of target DNA and RNA. Procedures that remove substances that interfere with the amplification process need to be developed if PCR is to be successfully applied to environmental samples. An RNA-PCR assay for the detection of enteroviruses in water was developed and used to test a variety of groundwater concentrates and humic acid solutions seeded with poliovirus type 1. The groundwater samples and humic acid solutions were treated with Sephadex G-50, Sephadex G-100, Sephadex G-200, Chelex-100 resin, and a mixed bed resin to remove PCR-inhibitory material from the samples. Sephadex G-100 in combination with Chelex-100 was found to be very effective in removing inhibitory factors for the detection of enteroviruses in groundwater concentrates by PCR. Viruses were detected in two of the groundwater concentrates by the RNA-PCR assay after treatment with Sephadex G-100 plus Chelex-100. This was confirmed by tissue culture, suggesting that the treatment protocol and, subsequently, the RNA-PCR assay are applicable for the detection of enteroviruses in environmental samples. ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?Campell (no initials given)1943An outbreak of jaundice64-65Health Bulletin (Edinburgh)2ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?Plowright, C. B.1896/On an epidemic of jaundice in king's lynn, 18951321British Medical Journal1ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform? Aycock, W. L.1927&A milk-borne epidemic of poliomyelitis791-803 Am. J. Hyg.7 not availableProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform?GAndo, T. M. N. Mulders D. C. Lewis M. K. Estes S. S. Monroe R. I. Glass1994Comparison of the polymerase region of small round structured virus strains previously classified in three antigenic types by solid-phase immune electron microscopy217-226Archive of Virology1351-2AWe have used a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction with nested sets of primers to determine the nucleotide sequences of a 166 base pair segment of the RNA polymerase region of seven strains of small round structured viruses (SRSVs) from the United Kingdom. These SRSV strains were previously classified by solid-phase immune electron microscopy into three antigenic types--UK2, UK3 and UK4, which are comparable to the prototype strains Norwalk virus, Hawaii agent, and Snow Mountain agents, respectively. Based on their sequences, the seven strains from the United Kingdom could be divided into two groups. The first group included two strains of the UK2 type along with Norwalk virus and Southampton virus and the second group included three strains of UK3 and two strains of UK4 types. Viruses in the first group showed 75.3%-77.1% nucleotide and 89.1%-94.6% amino acid identity with Norwalk virus while those of the second group showed 60.8%-63.3% nucleotide and 67.3%-69.1% amino acid identity. Nucleotide and amino acid identity within the second group ranged between 91.6%-99.4% and 96.4%-100%, respectively. These results suggest that the SRSVs antigenically related with Norwalk virus, Hawaii agent, and Snow Mountain agent, can be classified into two genotypes on the basis of their sequences in the RNA polymerase region. ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workformH?Caul, E. O. N. J. Sellwood D. W. Brown A. Curry T. J. Humphrey D. N. Hutchinson J. B. Kurtz S. R. Palmer T. Riordan I. R. Sharp19932Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with SRSVs2-87Public Health Library Service, UK - Microbiology Digest10ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workformO?%McKillip, J. L. L. A. Jaykus M. Drake1999^Nucleic acid persistence in heat-killed Escherichia coli O157 : H7 from contaminated skim milk839-844Journal of Food Protection628GPolymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR using primers targeting 16S rRNA sequences in Escherichia coli O157:H7 were applied to monitor the stability of rDNA anal rRNA in cells killed by mild heat treatment (60 degrees C) in skim milk. Serial dilutions of purified RNA and DNA from E. coli O157:H7 in skim milk were amplified by RT-PCR or PCR, respectively, before heat treatment and at time points 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after heating. In general, DNA-PCR provided stronger amplification signals compared to RT-PCR at the corresponding time points with the same PCR primer set, indicating a tower efficiency of RNA amplification compared to that of DNA. Ribosomal RNA. and rDNA could be amplified by RT-PCR or PCR from both viable and dead cells throughout the 48-h posttreatment holding period. For RT-PCR, amplification signals decreased in intensity with increased holding time, while the efficiency of amplification of DNA sequences from dead cells remained fairly stable throughout the study. DNA persistence was greater than that of rRNA following cell death by mild heat treatment in skim milk. Skim milk did not appear to accelerate nucleic acid degradation. While rRNA was less stable than DNA, its detection by RT-PCR may not be appropriate as an exclusive indicator of cell viability in minimally processed foods.ProCite Record Number: 10Journal Short Form workform? RWarner, R. D. R. W. Carr F. K. McCleskey P. C. Johnson L. M. Elmer V. E. Davison 1991A large nontypical outbreak of Norwalk virus: gastroenteritis associated with exposing celery to nonpotable water and with Citrobacter freundii 2419-2424!Archive of International Medicine15112%The US Air Force Academy experienced a point-source outbreak of gastroenteritis originally believed to be caused by Salmonella. The overall attack rate was 48% among approximately 3000 cadets and staff. Food-specific attack rates implicated chicken salad. The odds ratio for chicken salad consumption in ill cadets was 10.7 (95% confidence interval: 8.2; 13.8). The celery component had been exposed to nonpotable water. Citrobacter freundii were statistically associated with consumption of the suspected vehicle and subsequent illness. Most aspects were consistent with the epidemiology of Norwalk gastroenteritis. However, the clinical presentation was not typical of reported outbreaks. One hundred five cadets required intravenous rehydration. Serum samples implicated Norwalk virus as the most probable cause of this outbreak. The Centers for Disease Control (Atlanta, Ga) recently began national surveillance for viral gastroenteritis. All outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with nonpotable water should be investigated for evidence of viral cause. ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Alvarez, M. E. R. T. O'Brien1982@Effects of chlorine concentration on the structure of poliovirus237-239&Applied and Environmental Microbiology431Chlorine concerntrations below 0.8 mg/liter inactivated poliovirus without causing separation of the viral of the viral components. These results indicate that the release of RNA from the capsids is the result, not the cause, of virus inactivation by chlorine.ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? 0Read, M. R. H. Rancroft J. A. Doull R. F. Parker19435Infectious hepatitis - presumedly food-borne outbreak367-370!American Journal of Public Health36ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Anderson, O.1921An epidemic of jaundice252Nordisk Hygienisk Tidskrift2ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform? Blackwell, J. H. J. L. Hyde1976gEffect of heat on foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in the components of milk from FMDV-infected cows77-83Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge77 not availableProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workformS|7[WSchiff, G. M. Stefanovic, G. M. Young, E. C. Sander, D. S. Pennekamp, J. K. Ward, R. L.1984Studies of echovirus-12 in volunteers: determination of minimal infectious dose and the effect of previous infection on infectious dose858-866J. Infect. Dis.1506Adolescent Adult Antibody Formation Disease Susceptibility Echovirus Infections/*transmission Enterovirus B, Human/immunology/*pathogenicity Feces/microbiology Humans Male Middle Aged RecurrenceDecA two-part study of echovirus-12 was done in volunteers. In the first part the human infectious dose of the virus was determined in 149 healthy adults with undetectable serum antibody, each of whom drank 0-330,000 plaque-forming units (pfu) of virus in 100 ml of nonchlorinated water. Infection was defined as fecal shedding of virus or significant (fourfold or greater) increases in serum antibody titer. The HID50 (i.e., the dose required for infection of 50% of the volunteers) was 919 pfu. Through statistical analysis of the data by probit transformation, a 1% human-infectious dose of 17 pfu was predicted. These results were used in the second portion of the study to determine the effect of previous infection on the infectious dose. Previously infected volunteers (those with neutralizing serum antibody) were given a dose of echovirus-12 (1,500 pfu) that had been found to infect 60% of persons with undetectable serum antibody. The presence of serum antibody caused no significant change in the percentage of volunteers infected by this dose. Furthermore, the concentration of serum antibody did not affect the rate of infection or the duration of viral shedding. These results indicate that previous infection with echovirus-12 does not provide lasting protection against reinfection.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6501929Schiff, G M Stefanovic, G M Young, E C Sander, D S Pennekamp, J K Ward, R L Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. United states The Journal of infectious diseases J Infect Dis. 1984 Dec;150(6):858-66.0022-1899 (Print)6501929eng!?/Cheesbrough, J. S. L. Barkess-Jones D. W. Brown1997KPossible prolonged environmental survival of small round structured viruses325-326Journal of Hospital Infection354Gastroenteritis not availableProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform 4?6Dombroski, C. S. L. A. Jaykus D. P. Green B. E. Farkas1999fUse of a mutant strain for evaluating processing strategies to inactivate Vibrio vulnificus in oysters592-600Journal of Food Protection626 Vibrio vulnificus is a ubiquitous marine bacterium frequently isolated from shellfish and associated with severe and often fatal disease in humans. Various control strategies to reduce the disease risk associated with V. vulnificus contamination in shellfish have been proposed. However, evaluating the efficacy of these control strategies is complicated because of the difficulty in distinguishing V. vulnificus from the high levels of background environmental Vibrio spp. The purpose of this research was to develop a model indicator V. vulnificus strain that could be readily differentiated from background microflora and used to facilitate the evaluation of processing efficacy. A spontaneous nalidixic acid-resistant strain of V. vulnificus (Vv-NA) was prepared from a wild-type parent (Vv-WT) using selective plating techniques. Vv-NA was very similar to Vv-WT with respect to biochemical characteristics, appearance on selective plating media, detection limits using most probable number and polymerase chain reaction, and growth rate. In comparative freeze inactivation studies on pure cultures, Vv-WT and Vv-NA had similar freeze inactivation profiles at -20 degrees C (conventional freezing), at -85 degrees C (cold blast freezing), and in liquid nitrogen (cryogenic freezing). In oyster homogenates artificially inoculated with Vv-NA, the organism was inactivated 95 to 99% after freezing, irrespective of freezing temperature. Thermal inactivation comparisons of pure cultures of Vv-WT and Vv-NA using the capillary tube method revealed statistically significant differences in D values at 47 degrees C (2.2 versus 3.0 min, respectively) and 50 degrees C (0.83 versus 0.56 min, respectively), but nearly identical values at 52 degrees C (0.21 versus 0.22 min, respectively). However, these D values were notably higher than those reported by other investigators and hence provided a conservative means by which to evaluate thermal inactivation. In oyster homogenates seeded with Vv-NA, D values of 1.3 +/- 0.09 min and 0.41 +/- 0.01 min were obtained at 46 degrees C and 48 degrees C, respectively. This study demonstrated that Vv-NA is readily enumerated and could be used as a surrogate for evaluating the degree of V. vulnificus inactivation provided by freezing and thermal treatments of oyster homogenates.ProCite Record Number: 20Journal Short Form workform?(Allard, A. R. Girones, P. Juto G. Wadell1990HPolymerase chain reaction for detection of adenoviruses in stool samples 2659-2667 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2812The usefulness of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for diagnosing adenovirus infections was investigated. Several primers, including primers specific for the hexon-coding region and for enteric adenovirus types 40 and 41, were evaluated. The PCR method was validated against cell culturing in routine diagnostic work and against restriction enzyme analysis of viral DNA. Sixty diagnostic specimens were selected for evaluation by the PCR method. Twenty of the 60 specimens were found positive on the basis of cytopathic effects and latex agglutination (Adenolex [Orion Diagnostica, Helsinki, Finland]), and 16 were identified and typed as adenoviruses by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. PCR was performed on all 60 specimens in parallel directly on diluted stool samples and on viral DNA extracted from cells inoculated with the same stool samples. When the general hexon primers were used 51 of the 60 specimens from infected cell cultures were found positive by PCR, whereas only 13 specimens were found positive when PCR was performed directly on stool samples. With the use of selective primers for enteric adenoviruses 16 of the 60 cell cultures were found to exhibit amplification products by PCR, whereas 4 were detected in stool samples. None of the 60 specimens were found positive by PCR when an adenovirus type 40-specific primer pair was used. PCR was found to be a fast, sensitive, and reliable method for the detection of adenoviruses in diarrheal disease, provided the amplifications were performed directly on diluted stool samples. ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?*Murphy, W. J. V. M. Petrie S. D. Work, Jr.19467Outbreak of infectious hepatitis, apparently milk-borne169-173!American Journal of Public Health36ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform? Fraser, R.1931&A study of epidemic catarrhal jaundice396-411!Canadian Journal of Public Health22ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?'Burns, K. F. D. F. Shelton E. W. Grogan19582Bat rabies: experimental host transmission studies452-466%Annals of New York Academy of Science70 not availableProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?Centers for Diseases Control1987<Outbreak of viral gastroenteritis--Pennsylvania and Delaware709-711 Mobidity Mortality Weekly Report3643ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform? Anonymous19934Foodhandlers implicated in Denver hepatitis outbreak1-3Food Protection Report91ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workformj?KGray, J. J. J. Green C. Cunliffe C. Gallimore J. V. Lee K. Neal D. W. Brown1997eMixed genogroup SRSV infections among a party of canoeists exposed to contaminated recreational water425-429Journal of Medical Virology524SRSVs; gastroenteritis; RT-PCR; genogrouping; polymerase chain-reaction; round-structured viruses; human enteric caliciviridae; Norwalk-like viruses; viral gastroenteritis; genomic diversity; sequence; expression; diagnosis; outbreakHSamples of faeces collected from a party of canoeists involved in a gastroenteritis outbreak were examined by electron microscopy and RT-PCR for evidence of infection with SRSVs. A broadly reactive primer pair was used to detect SRSVs followed by application of genogroup-specific primers to SRSV-positive specimens. Exposure data were collected by means of a questionnaire. SRSVs were detected in 1/4 specimens examined by EM and 3/4 by RT-PCR. Genogrouping, and sequencing of PCR products revealed two distinct strains: a genogroup strain, related to the Desert Shield virus, and a genogroup II strain, related to the Lordsdale virus to be associated with the outbreak. Exposure data indicated that capsising and eating food before getting changed were associated with an increased risk of gastroenteritis and was consistent with infection following the consumption of contaminated water. This study confirms the greater sensitivity of RT-PCR for the diagnosis of SRSV infections and its utility, when incorporating genogroup-specific primers, in establishing more complex epidemiological data.ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?/Chung, H. L. A. Jaykus G. Lovelace M. D. Sobsey1998`Bacteriophages and bacteria as indicators of enteric viruses in oysters and their harvest waters37-44Water Science and Technology3812denteric viruses, bacteriophages, bacteria, oysters, shellfish, water, wastewater, indicators, RT-PCR_Reliable indicators are needed to detect enteric virus contamination of bivalve molluscan shellfish and their harvest waters. Concentrations of male-specific (Ft) coliphages, Bacteroides fragilis phages, Salmonella phages and several indicator bacteria in wastewater, estuarine receiving water and its oysters were examined for their ability to predict the presence and levels of faecal contamination and enteric viruses in oysters. Enteric viruses in oysters were detected by cell culture and RT-PCR methods. Fi coliphages, Salmonella phages, B fragilis phages and faecal indicator bacteria (faecal coliforms, E coli, enterococci and Clostridium perfringens) were generally positively associated and were highest in raw sewage and progressively lower in sewage affluent and in receiving waters at increasing distance from the wastewater discharge. Indicator levels in oysters were highest for F+ coliphages and C perfringens. One F+ RNA coliphage serotype (Group IZ) predominated in the wastewater, receiving water and oysters. Human enteric viruses were detected in 17/31 oyster samples. The levels of most indicators in oysters and water were higher when oysters were enteric virus-positive and lower when oysters were enteric virus-negative. F+ coliphages and C perfringens were the only indicators significantly associated with the presence of enteric viruses in oysters. F+ coliphages and their serotypes are promising indicators of human enteric virus contamination in oysters and their harvest waters. (C) 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of the IAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.ProCite Record Number: 30Journal Short Form workform?wBeards, G. M. A. D. Campbell N. R. Cottrell J. S. M. Peiris N. Rees R. C. Sanders J. A. Shirly H. C. Wood T. H. Flewett1984hEnzyme-linked immunosorbent assays based on polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies for rotavirus detection248-254 Journal of Clinical Microbiology192JWe describe two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for rotavirus antigen in feces, which were designed to be as sensitive and specific as possible, and easy to use anywhere. Both are indirect methods, using the antibody capture method, but the second assay utilizes a rotavirus group-specific monoclonal "detecting" antibody instead of the hyperimmune polyvalent guinea pig antisera used in the first assay. Both tests were found to be more sensitive than electron microscopy for detecting virus. To develop these tests, solid phase, antiserum production methods, treatment of the test antigen with EDTA, substrate, stability of reagents, and the need for confirmatory "blocking" tests were all examined. The first assay described is that used at present by the World Health Organization for their worldwide diarrheal disease control program.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?Ballance, G. A.19544Epidemic of infective hepatitis in an Oxford college 1071-1074British Medical Journal1ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform? Hallgren, R.1942jEpidemic hepatitis in the county of Vasterbotten in northern Sweden: an epidemiological and clinical study5-103#Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplement140ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?7Callis, J. J. J. L. Hyde J. H. Blackwell H. R. Cunliffe1975BSurvival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in milk and milk products181-191/Bulletin du Office International des Epizooties83 not availableProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform? Cimons, M.1995@Hepatitis A vaccine licensed, progress for rotavirus, parvovirus324-326ASM News617 not availableProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workformF? Centers for Disease Control1992$Hepatitis surveillance report No. 54%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report54ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?!LKukkula, M. P. Arstila M. L. Klossner L. Maunula C. H. Bonsdorff P. Jaatinen1997,Waterborne outbreak of viral gastroenteritis415-418,Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 294=Enteric viruses; PCR; enteroviruses; enteroviruses; infectionA waterborne epidemic took place in a Finnish municipality in April 1994. Some 1500-3000 people, i,e. 25-50% of the population, had symptomatic acute gastroenteritis, Laboratory findings confirmed adenovirus, a Norwalk-like agent, small round viruses (SRV), and group A and C rotaviruses as causative agents, Norwalk virus being the main cause of the outbreak, The epidemic was most probably associated with contaminated drinking water. The groundwater well, situated in the embankment of a river, was contaminated by polluted river water during the spring flood, A back how from the river to the well had occurred via a forgotten drainage pipe.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform?"%McKillip, J. L. L. A. Jaykus M. Drake1998srRNA stability in heat-killed and UV-irradiated enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157 :H7 4264-4268&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6411mDifferentiation of viable cells from nonviable cells is of considerable importance in the development of methods to detect foodborne pathogens, To study the suitability of 16S rRNA as an indicator of cell viability in nucleic acid-based detection assays, we examined rRNA stability in two representative foodborne pathogens, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus, which mere inactivated by extreme heat, moderate heat, and UV irradiation. Cell death under all conditions was confirmed by a failure to grow in brain heart infusion broth after incubation for 48 h at 37 degrees C. rRNA stability was monitored by a Northern blot analysis, and detection was evaluated by using reverse transcription (RT)-PCR performed with two primer sets (which produced 325- and 1,400-bp amplicons). rRNA of neither pathogen was detected by Northern blot analysis and RT-PCR after cells mere killed by autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 15 min. in contrast, intact rRNA of both pathogens were detected by Northern blotting and could be amplified by RT-PCR up to 48 h after cells were killed by heat treatment at 80 degrees C and UV irradiation at 254 nm, rRNA was a suitable target molecule for monitoring bacterial viability under extreme heat conditions, but the presence of rRNA was not correlated with viability following moderate heat inactivation or UV irradiation of cells.ProCite Record Number: 40Journal Short Form workform#?$Brown, V. K. B. H. Robertson1990Immunoselection of clinical specimens containing virus followed by polymerase chain reactor amplification and rapid direct sequencing262-264 BioTechniques83 no abstractProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?%-Kaufman, G. G. V. M. Sborov W. P. Havens, Jr.19528Outbreak of infectious hepatitis - presumably food-borne993-995+Journal of the American Medical Association149ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?& Bellander, J.19418Observations on an epidemic of jaundice during 1939-1940 1169-1181Svenska Lakartidningen38ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?',Chang, P. W. O. C. Liu L. T. Miller S. M. Li19719Multiplication of human enteroviruses in Northern Quahogs 1380-1384@Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine136 not availableProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform?(TMurphy, A. M. G. S. Grohmann P. J. Christopher W. A. Lopez G. R. Davey R. H. Millsom1979RAn Australia-wide outbreak of gastroenteritis from oysters caused by Norwalk virus329-33Medical Journal of Australia27At least 2000 persons were involved in an Australia-wide outbreak of oyster-associated food poisoning in June and July, 1978. At the time, this episode presented a major health risk to the community as a whole and has subsequently posed a serious economic problem for the oyster farming and distributing industry. Although bacteriological investigations indicated some batches of oysters were contaminated by sewage, no bacterial cause could be established. The causative organism was shown to be Norwalk virus, a known cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis. This virus was found in 39% of faecal specimens examined by electron microscopy and an antibody response was demonstrated by immune electron microscopy in 75% of paired sera tested. Norwalk virus has not been identified previously outside the United States of America and has not been linked to food-borne gastroenteritis before. Purification of oysters and other measures have been instituted to prevent a recurrence of the outbreak. ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform)?) Todd, E. C. D1992AFoodborne diseases in Canada- a 10-year summary from 1975 to 1984123-132Journal of Food Protection552Foodborne-diseases, food-contamination, bacteria, chemicals, parasites, toxins, etiology, morbidity, mortality, history, trends, CanadaTen years of foodborne disease data from 1975 to 1984 in Canada were examined. Microorganisms, particularly Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens and Bacillus cereus, were the main etiologic agents, but diseases also resulted from contamination of food with chemicals and parasites or food containing naturally occurring plant and animal toxins. An average of 5.6 deaths per year was recorded, with Salmonella, Clostridium botulinum, and Listeria monocytogenes responsible for most of them. The foods involved was, in general, potentially hazardous items, such as meat and poultry. Where information is known, most of the problems associated with foodborne illness occurred at foodservice establishments, but the impact of mishandling in homes and food processing establishments was also great. Incidents of microbiological etiology tended to peak in the summer months, particularly those caused by Salmonella, S. aureus, Campylobacter, and B. cereus.ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workformW?*"Sugieda M. K. Nakajima S. Nakajima1996|Outbreaks of Norwalk-like virus-associated gastroenteritis traced to shellfish: coexistence of two genotypes in one specimen339-346Epidemiology and Infection1163Immune electron-microscopy; polymerase chain-reaction; round-structured viruses; viral gastroenteritis; snow mountain; organization; immunoassay; sequence; agentWe determined the nucleotide sequences of Norwalk-like viruses in 10 PCR products from stool or oyster specimens obtained from four outbreaks of gastroenteritis in which shellfish was suspected as the cause in Shizuoka prefecture in Japan between 1987-94. The sequences were determined from nucleotide positions 4561-4852 (292 bp) in the polymerase region. Two types of sequences were detected. One (genotype 1) had 87% sequence homology with the prototype Norwalk virus, and the other (genotype 2) had 59% sequence homology. The sequences from isolates belonging to the same genotype were almost the same regardless of the year of isolation. Because sequences of 2 genotypes were detected in 2 of the 4 outbreaks, nested PCR was performed with genotype-specific primers to detect the presence of 2 genotypes in the same specimen. In 5 of 10 specimens, PCR bands were detected with both genotype-specific primers, indicating the coexistence of 2 genotypes in 1 specimen. We also detected two genotypes of Norwalk-like virus in an oyster from a sample implicated in one of the outbreaks which may provide direct evidence of oysters as the cause of the gastroenteritis.ProCite Record Number: 50Journal Short Form workform{?,OLefkowitz, A. G. S. Fout G. Losonsky S. S. Wasserman E. Israel J. G. Jr. Morris1992A serosurvey of pathogens associated with shellfish: prevalence of antibodies to Vibrio species and Norwalk virus in the Chesapeake Bay region369-380 American Journal of Epidemiology1354Recent concerns regarding the safety of shellfish consumption have focused on the risk posed by naturally occurring marine bacteria such as Vibrio species and by viruses such as Norwalk and related agents. Despite the widespread environmental presence of Vibrio species in the Chesapeake Bay, the rate of reported infections remains low; there have also been no reports of major Norwalk outbreaks associated with shellfish in this area. As infections with these agents may not always be recognized because of difficulties in making the diagnosis and/or their mild or subclinical presentation, a serosurvey was conducted among healthy volunteers living in the Chesapeake Bay region. Serum and questionnaire data were collected during the fall of 1987 from 267 persons with varying levels of exposure to shellfish: shellfish industry workers, persons attending a local seafood festival, and Seventh-day Adventists (who traditionally abstain from eating shellfish). In comparisons among groups, a significant association could not be demonstrated between shellfish consumption or contact and antibody response to Vibrio cholerae O1 or Norwalk virus. Rates of seropositivity were high for both agents (up to 22% seropositive with a V. cholerae O1 Inaba vibriocidal assay, 14% with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for cholera toxin, and up to 70% seropositive with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for antibodies to Norwalk virus); the basis for these responses in population-based studies remains to be determined. Shellfish industry workers did have a significantly elevated antibody response to the unencapsulated phase variant of Vibrio vulnificus as compared with the other groups studied. Infection with V. vulnificus may be relatively common among persons with high levels of exposure to shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform ?-YBruguera, M. J. M. Bayas A. Vilella C. Tural A. González J. Vidal R. Dal-Ré L. Salleras1996YImmunogenicity and reactogenicity of a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine in young adults 1407-1411Vaccine1415#(Original) Immunogenicity; HAV; HBVThe aim of this study was to assess the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of a combined vaccine against hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) in young healthy adults. A total of 150 subjects (20 +/- 1.4 years; 111 females and 39 males) negative for anti-HAV, anti-HBs, anti-HBc and HBsAg markers, were enrolled and randomized to received the study vaccine from one of the three lots under double blind conditions. Three doses of the combined vaccine were administered by intramuscular route (deltoid) following a 0-, 1- and 6 months schedule. Each dose of 1 ml contained at least 720 ELISA Units of HAV antigen (Strain HM175) and 20 micrograms of recombinant HBsAg. Blood samples for anti-HAV (ELISA), anti-HBs (RIA) and transaminases determinations were obtained 1 month after the administration of each dose and before to the administration of the third dose (month 6). Local and general reactions were recorded by the vaccinee on the day of each vaccination and for the three following days on symptom sheets. A total of 147 subjects completed the study. There were not statistically significant differences between groups regarding to immunogenicity. All subjects had seroconverted [geometric mean titres (GMT): 1311 mIU ml-1] for hepatitis A component following the second dose; GMT increased to 8895 mIU ml-1 after the third dose. Seroconversion rates for hepatitis B component were 98% (GMT, 104 mIU ml-1) after the second dose and 100% after the third dose (GMT, 7097 mIU ml-1). There were not statistically significant differences between groups regarding to incidence of local and general symptoms. Soreness at the injection site and headache were the most commonly local and general symptoms reported, following 42% and 11% of the doses, respectively. This vaccine when given to young adults was well tolerated and induced high immunogenic response, similar to that obtained by hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccines administered separately in previously reported trials. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?.Clark, W. D. Sachs H. Williams19587An outbreak of infectious hepatitis on a college campus268-2791American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene7ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?/ Dohmen, A.1941\Klinische und epidemiologische Beobachtungen bei gehauften Auftreten von Hepatitis Epidemica532-537Deutsch Militararzt6ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform?0 Cliver, D. O.19670Enterovirus detection by membrane chromatography139-141*Transmission of viruses by the water routeBerg, G.New York!Interscience, (John Wiley & Sons)ProCite Record Number: 60Book Chapter workform?1ESóckett, P. N. J. M. Cowden S. Le Baigue D. Ross G. K. Adak H. Evans1993>Foodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1989-1991R159-173Communicable Diseases Report312This review summarises reports of food poisoning, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and other acute foodborne illness to the PHLS Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, and notifications of food poisoning collated by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, in the period 1989-1991. During this period there were continuing rises in notifications of food poisoning and reports of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis. There was considerable success in the control of foodborne listeriosis. Newly emerging pathogens, such as Vero cytotoxin producing Escherichia coli, became more important. There was unprecedented scrutiny of the salmonella data by experts and politicians, reflecting continuing concern over the role of eggs as well as poultry meat in the increase of Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4 infection. This concern, along with advances in information technology, has led to developments in the collection and dissemination of information which continue to be implemented. ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform4?3 Jaykus, L. A.1997ZEpidemiology and detection as options for control of viral and parasitic foodborne disease529-539Emerging Infectious Diseases34GHuman enteric viruses and protozoal parasites are important causes of emerging food and waterborne disease. Epidemiologic investigation and detection of the agents in clinical, food, and water specimens, which are traditionally used to establish the cause of disease outbreaks, are either cumbersome, expensive, and frequently unavailable or unattempted for the important food and waterborne enteric viruses and protozoa. However, the recent introduction of regulatory testing mandates, alternative testing strategies, and increased epidemiologic surveillance for food and waterborne disease should significantly improve the ability to detect and control these agents. We discuss new methods of investigating foodborne viral and parasitic disease and the future of these methods in recognizing, identifying, and controlling disease agents.ProCite Record Number: 60Journal Short Form workform\?43Chapman, N. M. S. Tracy C. J. Gauntt U. Fortmueller1990tMolecular detection and identification of enteroviruses using enzymatic amplification and nucleic acid hybridization843-850 Journal of Clinical Microbiology285*Analysis of enteroviral genomes has revealed that the 5' nontranslated region is highly conserved, providing consensus sequences for the design of oligonucleotides which should anneal to most, if not all, human enteroviral RNAs. We designed and used a pair of such generic primers to enzymatically amplify cDNA from coxsackievirus group B types 1 through 6, poliovirus types 1 through 3, 4 coxsackievirus A types, and 29 echoviruses. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products generated with these enteroviral primers were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis, Southern blotting, or slot blot hybridization. A genotype-specific PCR was used to detect coxsackievirus B3, to the exclusion of other enteroviruses, by using a coxsackievirus B3 genome-specific primer pair that was derived from sequences coding for part of a capsid protein. A technique is demonstrated by which individual genotypes, for which no sequence information is known, can be identified by high-criterion hybridization analysis following amplification with generic enterovirus PCR primers. ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?5Gard, S.1957 Discussion241-243Hepatitis FrontiersHartman, F. W. Ed. Boston, MALittle, Brown & CompanyProCite Record Number: 70Book Chapter workform?6 Hallgren, R.1943GEpidemic hepatitis in the county of Vasterbotten in northern Sweden, II22-35Acta Medica Scandinavica 115ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform ?7 Cliver, D. O.1980Agricultural crops: pathogens141-152)Sludge-- health risks of land application7Bitton, G. B. L. Damron G. T. Edds J. M. Davidson (Ed.)Ann Arbor, MI.Ann Arbor ScienceProCite Record Number: 70Book Chapter workformF?8Center for Diseases Control1996Hepatitis Surveillance Report 4Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention, Atlanta56ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?9 Anonymous1993[Gastrointestinal virus infections, England and Wales: laboratory reports, weeks 92/52-93/0110Communicable Disease Report33ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform?:cMorens, D. M. R. M. Zweighaft T. M. Vernon G. W. Gary J. J. Eslien B. T. Wood R. C. Holman R. Dolin1979oA waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis with secondary person-to-person spread: association with a viral agent964-966Lancet18123In December, 1976, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred at a resort camp in Colorado. Data obtained by questionnaire from 760 persons indicated that 418 (55%) had had gastroenteritis at the camp or within a week of leaving it, with peak onset within a two-day period. Symptoms included vomiting (81%), diarrhoea (65%), and fever (49%); median duration of illness was twenty-four hours. The attack-rate increased with consumption of water or ice-containing beverages. The camp water supply was found to be inadequately chlorinated and contaminated by a leaking septic tank. Although routine laboratory tests did not reveal bacterial, viral, or parasitic pathogens, immune electron microscopy detected virus-like particles in two of five diarrhoeal stool filtrates. Oral administration of one of these bacteria-free filtrates to two volunteers induced a gastrointestinal illness similar to that observed in the camp visitors.ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workform ?; Jaykus, L. A.1996NThe application of quantitative risk assessment to microbial food safety risks279-293 Critical Reviews in Microbiology224Regulatory programs and guidelines for the control of foodborne microbial agents have existed in the U.S. for nearly 100 years. However, increased awareness of the scope and magnitude of foodborne disease, as well as the emergence of previously unrecognized human pathogens transmitted via the foodborne route, have prompted regulatory officials to consider new and improved strategies to reduce the health risks associated with pathogenic microorganisms in foods. Implementation of these proposed strategies will involve definitive costs for a finite level of risk reduction. While regulatory decisions regarding the management of foodborne disease risk have traditionally been done with the aid of the scientific community, a formal conceptual framework for the evaluation of health risks from pathogenic microorganisms in foods is warranted. Quantitative risk assessment (QRA), which is formally defined as the technical assessment of the nature and magnitude of a risk caused by a hazard, provides such a framework. Reproducing microorganisms in foods present a particular challenge to QRA because both their introduction and numbers may be affected by numerous factors within the food chain, with all of these factors representing significant stages in food production, handling, and consumption, in a farm-to-table type of approach. The process of QRA entails four designated phases: (1) hazard identification, (2) exposure assessment, (3) dose-response assessment, and (4) risk characterization. Specific analytical tools are available to accomplish the analyses required for each phase of the QRA. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of the conceptual framework for quantitative microbial risk assessment within the standard description provided by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) paradigm. Each of the sequential steps in QRA are discussed in detail, providing information on current applications, tools for conducting the analyses, and methodological and/or data limitations to date. Conclusions include a brief discussion of subsequent uncertainty and risk analysis methodologies, and a commentary on present and future applications of QRA in the management of the public health risks associated with the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in the food supply.ProCite Record Number: 70Journal Short Form workforma?< Chezzi, C.1996<Rapid diagnosis of poliovirus infection by PCR amplification 1722-1725 Journal of Clinical Microbiology347A single-tube, single-primer-set reverse transcription-PCR assay was developed for the rapid detection of polioviruses in infected tissue culture fluids and clinical materials. The poliovirus-specific PCR primers are located in the VP1-2A region of the poliovirus genome. They generate a 290-bp product and can be used in duplex reactions with general enterovirus primers. The primers span the region used for genotype determination, so that genotype analysis of wild-type polioviruses can be performed by direct sequencing of the PCR products. Of 125 virus isolates typed as polioviruses by neutralization assays, 125 (100%) were also positive by PCR, and of 38 isolates typed as non-polio enteroviruses by conventional techniques, 38 (100%) were also negative by PCR. The assay described here is rapid, highly sensitive, and specific and has clinical applicability in the diagnosis of poliovirus infections. ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?= Seddon, J. H.1961CAn epidemiological survey of infectious hepatitis in a country town55-60New Zealand Medical Journal60ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?>Neefe, J. R. J. Stokes, Jr.1945IAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis apparently due to a water borne agent 1063-1075+Journal of the American Medical Association128ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?? Cliver, D. O.19812Experimental infection by waterborne enteroviruses861-865J. Food Prot. 44 not availableProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform`F?@Centers for Diseases Control1996Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)VMorbidity Mortality Weekly Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta45RR-15ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?A Malcolm, R.1992QFood poisoning outbreak following gourmet function held at a hotel in St. Andrews4-6ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health Weekly Report, Scotland264ProCite Record Number: 80Journal Short Form workform?EMcCollum, R. W.19619An outbreak of viral hepatitis in the Mediterranean fleet902-910Military Medicine126ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?FHayward, M. L.1946<Epidemiological study of an outbreak of infectious hepatitis504-510Gastroenterology6ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workformDF?GCliver, D. O. R. J. salo1973$Thermal inactivation: animal virusesBiology Data BookII!Altman, P. L. D. S. Dittmer (Ed.) Bethseda, MD.9Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology2ndProCite Record Number: 90Book Chapter workformF?HU.S. Public Health Service1995'Food code. Food and drug administration-U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?IWorld Health Organization1992'Air travel-associated foodborne illness1ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe31ProCite Record Number: 90Journal Short Form workform?K%Notermans, S. A. Hoogenboom-Verdegaal1992(Existing and emerging foodborne diseases197-205*International Journal of Food Microbiology153-4ReviewFoodborne diseases, i.e. illnesses due to contaminated food, are one of the most widespread problems of the contemporary world. They are toxic or infectious by nature and are caused by agents which enter the body through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. These agents can be chemical like pesticide residues and toxic metals or biological like pathogenic microorganisms. Foods contaminated by biological agents are, however, the major cause of foodborne disease. Data recorded in different countries show that the incidence of some of these diseases has increased dramatically over the past few years, but because of under-reporting the data are of limited value and cannot be compared between countries. In most countries, individual cases of illness are usually not reported. A sentinel surveillance system, started as a pilot study in the Netherlands, was shown to be feasible for the registration of some foodborne infections. Based on this study, it can be estimated that each year Salmonella and Campylobacter cause respectively about 12,000 and 25,000 cases of acute enteritis per million. Case-control studies clearly implicate poultry products as an important source of acute enteritis. New developments in food production and changing trends in food consumption lead to the emergence of new hazards. Additionally, because the population is aging and there has been an increase in the number of individuals with underlying diseases, the state of public health is deteriorating. Campylobacter, Salmonella enteritidis and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli are examples of microorganisms that have the opportunity to increase as a consequence of intensive husbandry. Listeria monocytogenes is an example of an organism that causes disease in immunosuppressed individuals.ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?LDCohen, J. I. B. Rosenblum S. M. Feinstone J. Ticehurst R. H. Purcell1989dAttenuation and cell culture adaptation of hepatitis A virus (HAV): a genetic analysis with HAV cDNA 5364-5370Journal of Virology6312VRNA transcripts of hepatitis A virus (HAV) HM-175 cDNA from attenuated, cell culture-adapted HAV were infectious in cell culture. A full-length HAV cDNA from wild-type HAV (propagated in marmosets in vivo) was constructed. Chimeric cDNAs that contained portions of both wild-type and attenuated genomes were produced. Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was used to engineer a point mutation into the VP1 gene of attenuated HAV cDNA, so that the sequence of this capsid protein would be identical to that of the wild-type virus. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with RNA transcripts from several of the chimeric cDNAs and from the mutagenized cDNA induced production of HAV. Comparison of the growth of attenuated, wild-type, chimeric, and mutant viruses in vitro indicated that the P2-P3 (nonstructural protein) region is important for cell culture adaptation of the virus; the 5' noncoding region may also contribute to adaptation, but to a lesser extent. Inoculation of marmosets with transfection-derived virus also suggested that the P2-P3 region plays an important role in attenuation of HAV HM-175. ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?M&Dull, H. B. Doege, T. C. Mosley, J. W.1963FAn outbreak of infectious hepatitis associated with a school cafeteria475-480Southern Medical Journal56ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?NOlin, G.1947/A hepatitis outbreak presumably spread by water381-391#Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplement196ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform^?O*Coulepis, A. G. S. A. Locarnini I. D. Gust1980GIodination of hepatitis A virus reveals a fourth structural polypeptide572-574Journal of Virology352nHepatitis A virus present in the feces of two patients with naturally acquired hepatitis A was purified, radiolabeled with 125I, and analyzed by discontinuous sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In addition to the three structural polypeptides previously reported, a fourth polypeptide with a molecular weight of 14,000 was detected and shown to be a component of hepatitis A virus by immune precipitation techniques. Intact virions were also shown to sediment at 160S on sucrose gradients. These findings are consistent with hepatitis A virus being an enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae. ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?PWorld Health Organization1995DPublic health control of hepatitis A: Memorandum from a WHO meeting.15-20,Bulletin , World Health Organization, Geneva73ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform?Q%Jaykus, L. A. R. DeLeon M. D. Sobsey1995QDevelopment of a molecular method for the detection of enteric viruses in oysters 1357-1362Journal of Food Protection58120enteric viruses, hepatitis A virus, PCR, oystersWDetection of enteric virus contamination of shellfish is limited by current methodology, which is time-consuming, tedious, and lacking in sensitivity due to reliance on cell culture infectivity. Alternative detection methods based on nucleic acid amplification have been hampered by high sample volumes and the presence of enzymatic inhibitors. The goal of this study was to develop methods to purify and concentrate intact virions from oyster extracts to a volume and quality compatible with viral genomic nucleic acid amplification by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Fifty-gram oyster samples were homogenized and processed by standard adsorption-elution-precipitation methodology and then seeded with 10(5)PFU of poliovirus 1 (PV1) or hepatitis A virus (HAV). Seeded viruses were concentrated by fluorocarbon extraction, polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, chloroform extraction, and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) precipitation to a volume of 100 mu l with removal of RT-PCR inhibitors. Virus recovery after elution of PEG precipitates was 50% for PV1 and 15 to 20% for HAV as evaluted by cell culture infectivity. The CTAB precipitation step yielded a concentrated sample which was directly compatible with RT-PCR reactions and capable of detecting about 100 placque=forming units (PFU) of PV1 or HAV. When 50-g oyster extracts were seeded and processed by the entire concentration and purification scheme, direct RT-PCR detection of viral genomic RNA was possible at initial inoculum levels of 10(4) PFU of HAV and 10(3) PFU of PV1, with recoveries of 1 to 5% of seeded viruses.ProCite Record Number: 100Journal Short Form workform]?RWilliams, F. P. Jr. G. S. Fout1992FContamination of shellfish by stool-shed viruses: methods of detection689-696$Environmental Science and Technology264iMethods for detecting stool-shed viruses in contaminated shellfish can be categorized into three main types: adsorption-elution-precipitation, elution-precipitation, and filtration-hydroextraction. Virus assays used to detect viruses in shellfish are also discussed. Consumption of infected shellfish can lead to hepatitis A and viral gastroenteritis in humans.ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform?T6Rindge, M. E. Clem, J. D. Linker, R. E. Sherman, L. K. UnspecifiedEA case study on the transmission of infectious hepatitis by raw clamsHU. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare publication, O M 1752ProCite Record Number: 110Book Short Form workform,?U Gauld, R. L.1946Epidemiological field studies of infectious hepatitis in the Mediterranean theater of operation: II. A. Epidemic pattern; B. Outbreaks with distinctive features255-272American Journal of Hygiene43ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform?V6Daemer, R. J. S. M. Feinstone I. D. Gust R. H. Purcell1981rPropagation of hepatitis A virus in African green monkey kidney cell culture: primary isolation and serial passage388-393Infection and Immunity321Human hepatitis A virus (HAV) was propagated in primary African Green Monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) kidney (AGMK) cell cultures. Three strains of HAV were used: MS-1, SD-11, and HM-175. Cells were inoculated with marmoset-passaged material or human clinical specimens and were stained by direct immunofluorescence to establish the identity of the virus. Both clinical samples and marmoset-passaged material produced immunofluorescence. HAV antigen was found scattered throughout the cytoplasm of inoculated cultures. The HM-175 strain produced the most intense immunofluorescence. This strain of HAV had been serially passaged in cell culture seven times. Blocking experiments with paired human sera from naturally acquired HAV infections and hyperimmune chimpanzee serum from an experimentally infected animal established that the immunofluorescence was specific. The viral antigen was found to be exclusively intracellular. The interval to maximum HAV antigen expression was decreased by serial passage. The HAV strain described herein, which was recovered directly from the stool specimen of a patient with HAV in primary AGMK cell culture, may prove useful as a source of antigen for serological tests and as a candidate vaccine strain. ProCite Record Number: 110Journal Short Form workform:?X+Hofmann, F. G. Wehrle H. Berthold D. Koster1992%Hepatitis A as an occupational hazardS82-S84Vaccine10 Supplement 1lFew studies have been carried out to evaluate the role of hepatitis A virus (HAV) as an occupational hazard. Our analysis of data on occupational diseases in Germany showed that hepatitis A ranks as third among infectious occupational diseases. Morbidity based on the frequency of compensation (15.2%) was in the same range as that observed for hepatitis B (19.7%). In another study, data were collected on anti-HAV prevalence among 2293 hospital workers in southwest Germany. Anti-HAV prevalence of hospital staff responsible for patient care and that of the general population were comparable, while food-handlers under the age of 30 years had a higher degree of anti-HAV prevalence. When an evaluation of anti-HAV prevalence data was carried out on persons younger than 30 years who comprised subsets of the medical staff, the relative risk was: charwomen 4.2, food-handlers 2.49, and paediatric nurses 1.84, showing that they had higher prevalence rates than nurses 1.25, physicians 1.09 and laboratory assistants 0.93. Vaccinations for the prevention of hepatitis A should therefore reach individuals that have an increased occupational risk: food-handlers, health care workers in infectious diseases and paediatrics, medical staff in laboratories handling stool samples, medical charwomen and, according to previously published work, staff of day care centres and sewerage workers. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workformw?YGCoulepis, A. G. S. A. Locarnini E. G. Westaway G. A. Tannock I. D. Gust1982ABiophysical and biochemical characterization of hepatitis V virus107-127 Intervirology183[Hepatitis A; hepatitis A virus; classification; biophysical and biochemical characteristicsBiophysical and biochemical analysis of hepatitis A virus has shown it to be a 27- to 32-nm icosahedral particle with 32 capsomers. The mature virion has a buoyant density of 1.33-1.34 g/cm3, a sedimentation coefficient of 156-160S, and is composed of four polypeptides with molecular weights of 30,000-33,000 (VP1), 24,000-27,000 (VP2), 21,000-23,000 (VP3), and 7,000-14,000 (VP4). The genome of hepatitis A virus consists of a single piece of single-stranded RNA which sediments at 32-35S and has a buoyant density of 1.64 g/cm3. The molecular weight of RNA is 2.25 x 10(6) when measured under nondenaturing conditions and 2.8 x 10(6) when measured under fully denaturing conditions. The genome contains a 40-80 nucleotide sequence of polyadenylic and is capable of infecting cell cultures. These findings, together with the observation that the virion is stable at pH 3.0 and resistant to ether and a temperature of 60 degrees for 1 h, indicate that hepatitis A virus should now be classified as an Enterovirus within the family Picornaviridae. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?ZMason, J. O. W. R. McLean1962WInfectious hepatitis traced to the consumption of raw oysters: an epidemiological study90-111American Journal of Hygiene75ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?[Harrison, F. F.1947Binfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak, apparently waterborne622-625Archives of Internal of Hygiene79ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?\CD'Alessio, D. J. T. E. Minor C. I. Allen A. A. Tsiatis D. B. Nelson1981A study of the proportions of swimmers among well controls and children with enterovirus-like illness shedding or not shedding an enterovirus533-541 American Journal of Epidemiology1135/CHildren between the ages of less than 1 year and 15 years who visited a pediatric clinic in Madison, Wisconsin, from June 13 through September 1, 1977, were surveyed for the frequency and location of swimming they had done in the two weeks prior to the clinic visit. The study population consisted of 679 well controls, and 296 children with enteroviral-like syndromes. Throat and rectal swab specimens were collected from 241 of the ill patients and from 27 well children. Non-polio enteroviruses were recovered from 119 ill and two well individuals. Other viruses were recovered from an additional 13 ill patients. The majority of viral-like syndromes were respiratory, with or without fever and gastrointestinal symptoms. Exclusive beach swimmers had significantly (p less than 0.0005) increased relative risk (odds ratio estimate 3.41) of enterovirus illness. The highest relative risk (10.63) of enterovirus illness occurred in children less than 4 years old who were exclusive beach swimmers. Swimming in pools exclusively carried no significantly increased risk of enterovirus illness. Children with apparent viral illnesses based on clinical findings, who had no virus isolated, did not differ from well controls in the type of swimming exposure (either beaches or pools) in the two weeks prior to their clinic visit. ProCite Record Number: 120Journal Short Form workform?^ Gust, I. D.1992&A vaccine against hepatitis A- at last345-346Medical Journal of Australia1575ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?_BCoulepis, A. G. M. F. Veale A. MacGregor M. Kornitschuk I. D. Gust1985Detection of hepatitis A virus and antibody by solid-phase radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with monoclonal antibodies119-124 Journal of Clinical Microbiology221qMonoclonal antibodies (K3-2F2 and K3-4C8) raised against hepatitis A virus were used to develop a solid-phase radioimmunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of hepatitis A virus and antibody. Assays with this pair of monoclonal antibodies were compared in parallel with similarly constructed solid-phase radioimmunoassays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in which human polyclonal serum was used. The monoclonal antibody assay proved to be more sensitive for the detection of hepatitis A virus from fecal specimens as well as for anti-hepatitis A virus immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM in sera. ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?`Dougherty, J. O. W. R. McLean1962(Viral hepatitis in New Jersey, 1960-1961704-716American Journal of Medicine32ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?aLaurell, G. G. Lofstrom1948IEpidemisk akut hepatiti ett norrlandssam halle orsakad genom Vattensmitta477-486Svenska Lakartidningen45ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?b/DiGirolamo, R. L. Wiczynski M. Daley F. Miranda1972NPreliminary observations on the uptake of poliovirus by West Coast shore crabs170-171Applied Microbiology23 not availableProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workform?cRegan, P. M. A. B. Margolin1997Development of a nucleic acid capture probe with reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction to detect poliovirus in groundwater 65-72Journal of Virological Methods641ggroundwater, nucleic acid capture, poliovirus, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)OThere is a need to develop a practical method for the detection of viral contaminates in water supplies. In this study, poliovirus was used as a model to develop a nucleic acid capture technique. This technique was used to recover viral RNA from concentrated groundwater samples. Poliovirus RNA was isolated using magnetic bead technology. A biotinylated oligonucleotide probe was hybridized to poliovirus-RNA in solution. Streptavidin coated magnetic beads were then added to isolate the RNA-oligonucleotide hybrid. The procedure allows for the recovery of viral RNA suitable for amplification by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). This nucleic acid capture system was effective in both concentrating, and purifying poliovirus RNA while removing environmental RT-PCR inhibitors. A detection sensitivity of one plaque forming unit (PFU) in 250 mu l of a concentrated environmental sample was routinely attained. This was the same detection level found with seeded purified water. It was shown that the sensitivity of nucleic acid capture RT-PCR was significantly greater than direct RT-PCR, when applied to environmental samples. The amplified product was sequenced to ensure specificity. Furthermore, this technique is rapid, reliable and can be readily adapted to detect other viral pathogens. Copyright (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.ProCite Record Number: 130Journal Short Form workformG?dGCohen, J. I. J. R. Ticehurst S. M. Feinstone B. Rosenblum R. H. Purcell1987MHepatitis A virus cDNA and its RNA transcripts are infectious in cell culture 3035-3039Journal of Virology61101A full-length cDNA copy of an attenuated, cell culture-adapted hepatitis A virus (HAV HM-175/7 MK-5) genome was constructed in the PstI site of plasmid vector pBR322. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with this plasmid failed to induce the production of hepatitis A virus (HAV). The HAV cDNA was excised from pBR322 and inserted, without the oligo(dG) X oligo(dC) tails, into an RNA transcription vector to yield plasmid pHAV/7. Transfection of monkey kidney cells with pHAV/7 DNA induced HAV infection. Transfection with RNA transcripts produced in vitro from pHAV/7 yielded about 10-fold more HAV than did transfection with pHAV/7 DNA. Marmosets inoculated with transfection-derived virus developed anti-HAV antibodies and had liver enzyme patterns that closely resembled the liver enzyme patterns seen in animals inoculated with virus from a comparable level of cell culture passage. Infectious RNA transcripts from HAV cDNA should be useful for studying the molecular basis of cell culture adaptation and attenuation as well as for studying specific viral functions. ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?e0U. S, Department of Health Education and Welfare19636Hepatitis - possible common source outbreak, Minnesota8$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report1026ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?f Rabe, E. F.1947 Epidemic of infectious hepatitis2-14Medical Bulletin2ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform(?g<DiGirolamo, R. L. Wiczynski M. Daley F. Miranda C. Viehweger1972aUptake of bacteriophage and their subsequent survival in edible West Coast crabs after processing 1073-1076Applied Microbiology23 not availableProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?hWorld Health Organization1992Inactivated hepatitis A vaccine261-264WHO Weekly Epidemiology Records67ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workformF?iEGriffin, D. W. C. J. Gibson E. K. Lipp K. Riley J. H. Paul J. B. Rose1999Detection of viral pathogens by reverse transcriptase PCR and of microbial indicators by standard methods in the canals of the Florida Keys 4118-4125&Applied and Environmental Microbiology659In order to assess the microbial water quality in Canal waters throughout the Florida Keys, a survey was conducted to determine the concentration of microbial fecal indicators and the presence of human pathogenic microorganisms, A total of 19 sites, including 17 canal sites, and 2 nearshore water sites, were assayed for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens enterococci, coliphages, F-specific (F+) RNA coliphages, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, and human enteric viruses (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, echoviruses, hepatitis A viruses, Norwalk viruses, and small round-structured viruses), Numbers of coliforms ranged from <1 to 1,410, E. coli organisms from <1 to 130, Clostridium spp. from <1 to 520, and enterococci from <1 to 800 CFU/100 mi of sample, Two sites were positive for coliphages, but no F+ phages were identified. The sites were ranked according to microbial water quality and compared to various water quality standards and guidelines. Seventy-nine percent of the sites were positive for the presence of enteroviruses by reverse transcriptase PCR (polioviruses, coxsackie A and B viruses, and echoviruses). Sixty-three percent of the sites were positive for the presence of hepatitis A viruses. Ten percent of the sites were positive for the presence of Norwalk viruses. Ninety-five percent of the sites were positive for at least one of the virus groups. These results indicate that the canals and nearshore waters throughout the Florida Keys are being impacted by human fecal material carrying human enteric viruses through current wastewater treatment strategies such as septic tanks. Exposure to canal waters through recreation and work may be contributing to human health risks.ProCite Record Number: 140Journal Short Form workform?j Davis, D.1996HIV-1 candidate vaccines can induce antibodies which share specificity with human monoclonal antibodies capable of neutralizing primary isolates353-354Vaccine144 no abstractProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?k1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963Infectious hepatitis - Oregon10 & 16$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report122ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?lPotts, C. E. Jr.1947 Outbreak of infectious hepatitis2-10Medical Bulletin4ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?m#DiGirolamo, R. L. Liston J. Matches1977?Ionic bonding, the mechanism of viral uptake by shellfish mucus19-25&Applied and Environmental Microbiology33 not availableProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform?nWorld Health Organization1993WPrevention of foodborne hepatitis A: Considerations on the vaccination of food handlers25-32WHO Weekly Epidemiology Records68ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform ?o&Sinton, L. W. R. K. Finlay P. A. Lynch1999VSunlight inactivation of fecal bacteriophages and bacteria in sewage-polluted seawater 3605-3613&Applied and Environmental Microbiology658Sunlight inactivation rates of somatic coliphages, F-specific RNA bacteriophages (F-RNA phages), and fecal coliforms were compared in seven summer and three winter survival experiments. Experiments were conducted outdoors, using 300-liter 2% (vol/vol) sewage-seawater mixtures held in open-top chambers. Dark inactivation rates (k(D)s), measured from exponential survival curves in enclosed (control) chambers, were higher in summer (temperature range: 14 to 20 degrees C) than in winter (temperature range: 8 to 10 degrees C). Winter k(D)s were highest for fecal coliforms and lowest for F-RNA phages but were the same or similar for all three indicators in summer. Sunlight inactivation rates (k(S)), as a function of cumulative global solar radiation (insolation), were all higher than the k(D)s with a consistent k(S) ranking (from greatest to least) as follows: fecal coliforms, F-RNA phages, and somatic coliphages. Phage inactivation was exponential, but bacterial curves typically exhibited a shoulder. Phages from raw sewage exhibited k(S)s similar to those from waste stabilization pond effluent, but raw sewage fecal coliforms were inactivated faster than pond effluent fecal coliforms. In an experiment which included F-DNA phages and Bacteroides fragilis phages, the k(S) ranking (from greatest to least) was as follows: fecal coliforms, F-RNA phages, B. fragilis phages, F-DNA phages, and somatic coliphages. In a 2-day experiment which included enterococci, the initial concentration ranking (from greatest to least: fecal coliforms, enterococci, F-RNA phages, and somatic coliphages) was reversed during sunlight exposure, with only the phages remaining detectable by the end of day 2. Inactivation rates under different optical filters decreased with the increase in spectral cutoff wavelength (50% light transmission) and indicated that F-RNA phages and fecal coliforms are more susceptible than somatic coliphages to longer solar wavelengths, which predominate in seawater. The consistently superior survival of somatic coliphages in our experiments suggests that they warrant further consideration as fecal, and possibly viral, indicators in marine waters.ProCite Record Number: 150Journal Short Form workform t7McDonnell, G. Russell, A. D.1999?Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance147-79Clin Microbiol Rev121Anti-Infective Agents, Local/*chemistry/*pharmacology Disinfectants/*chemistry/*pharmacology Drug Resistance, Microbial Structure-Activity RelationshipJanAntiseptics and disinfectants are extensively used in hospitals and other health care settings for a variety of topical and hard-surface applications. A wide variety of active chemical agents (biocides) are found in these products, many of which have been used for hundreds of years, including alcohols, phenols, iodine, and chlorine. Most of these active agents demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity; however, little is known about the mode of action of these agents in comparison to antibiotics. This review considers what is known about the mode of action and spectrum of activity of antiseptics and disinfectants. The widespread use of these products has prompted some speculation on the development of microbial resistance, in particular whether antibiotic resistance is induced by antiseptics or disinfectants. Known mechanisms of microbial resistance (both intrinsic and acquired) to biocides are reviewed, with emphasis on the clinical implications of these reports.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=9880479wMcDonnell, G Russell, A D Review United states Clinical microbiology reviews Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 Jan;12(1):147-79.0893-8512 (Print)889119880479dSTERIS Corporation, St. Louis Operations, St. Louis, Missouri 63166, USA. gerry_mcdonnell@steris.comengV:|7%Millard, J. Appleton, H. Parry, J. V.1987Studies on heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus with special reference to shellfish. Part 1. Procedures for infection and recovery of virus from lab?q2Davis, H. L. M. Mancini M. -L. Michel R. G. Whalen1996kDNA-mediated immunization to hepatitis B surface antigen: longevity of primary response and effect of boost910-915Vaccine149bDNA vaccination; hepatitis B; plasmid DNA; direct gene transfer; humoral response; HBsAg; anti-HBs4Intramuscular (i.m.) injection of mice with plasmid DNA expression vectors containing all or part of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) gene encoding the envelope proteins induces a strong humoral response to the HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) which is sustained for up to 74 weeks without boost. After a single i.m. injection of 100 micrograms DNA, antibodies to HBsAg (anti-HBs) reach ELISA titers of 4 x 10(4) in C57BL/6 mice and 10(4) in BALB/c mice, or somewhat less in older mice. Although antibody levels induced by a single injection of DNA do not diminish significantly over time, they can be further increased 10-200-fold by boosting with a second injection of DNA or an injection of recombinant HBsAg protein. Prior injection of DNA does not affect the strength or timing of the boosting effect, suggesting that there is no immune response against the vector itself. Boosting with a second injection of DNA is possible even in BALB/c mice, which are known to have a strong cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response against an epitope on the major HBV envelope protein, indicating that possible destruction of newly transfected muscle fibers is not so quick and efficient as to abort the boosting effect. A single injection of DNA results in a stronger and longer lasting humoral response than does a single injection of recombinant protein. ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?r*Joseph, P. R. J. D. Millar D. A. Henderson19655An outbreak of hepatitis traced to food contamination188-194New England Journal of Medicine273ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?s#Seal, S. C. B. Mukherjee S. B. Bose19600Infectious hepatitis in the Gomoh railway colony67-83Indian Journal of Public Health4ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?tDingman, J. C.1916=Report of possibly milk-borne epidemic of infantile paralysis589-590NY State J. Med.16 not availableProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform?uLewis, G. D. T. G. Metcalf1988Polyethylene glycol precipitation for recovery of pathogenic viruses, including hepatitis A virus and human rotavirus, from oyster, water, and sediment samples 1983-1988&Applied and Environmental Microbiology548Polyethylene glycol 6000 precipitation was found to be an effective concentration method that enhanced the chances for detecting human virus pathogens in environmental samples. Percent recoveries from eluates of fresh and estuarine waters with 8% polyethylene glycol 6000 averaged 86 for hepatitis A virus, 77 for human rotavirus Wa, 87 for simian rotavirus SA11, and 68 for poliovirus. Percent recoveries of 97, 40, 97 and 105, respectively, for the same viruses were obtained from oyster eluates by the same procedure. Percent recoveries of 97 for hepatitis A virus and 78 for human rotavirus Wa were obtained from sediment eluates containing 2 M NaNO3 with a final concentration of 15% polyethylene glycol 6000. The polyethylene glycol method was shown to be more effective than the organic flocculation method for recovery of hepatitis A virus and rotaviruses Wa and SA11, but not of poliovirus 1 in laboratory studies. In field trials, hepatitis A virus or rotavirus or both were recovered from 12 of 18 eluates by polyethylene glycol, compared with recovery from 9 of 18 eluates by organic flocculation from fresh and estuarine waters subject to pollution. ProCite Record Number: 160Journal Short Form workform^?v,Burkhardt III, W. W. D. Watkins S. R. Rippey1992ZSeasonal effects on accumulation of microbiol indicator organisms by Mercenaria mercenaria826-831&Applied and Environmental Microbiology583FThe ability of hard-shelled clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) to accumulate fecal coliforms and other microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, and male-specific bacteriophages) was determined over a 1-year period. Twenty separate trails were conducted during different seasons to encompass a wide range of water temperatures. The greatest accumulation of microorganisms in hard-shelled clams occurred during certain periods in the spring, at temperatures ranging from 11.5 to 21.5 degrees C. These periods of hyperaccumulation did not always coincide for all organisms; the accumulation of bacteriophages was not predicted by the accumulation of either fecal coliforms or C. perfringens. Bacteriophages and C. perfringens showed significantly higher rates of accumulation than either the fecal coliform group or E. coli, especially during the spring. The higher incidence of human viral gastroenteritis associated with the consumption of shellfish during this period may be a result of the extraordinary concentration of certain microorganisms, including enteric viral pathogens. ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform?w1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963.Infectious hepatitis possibly due to raw clams8Hepatitis Surveillance14ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform?x%Rindge, M. E. J. O. Mason W. R. Elsea1962jInfectious hepatitis. Report of an outbreak in a small Connecticut school, due to water-borne transmission33-37+Journal of the American Medical Association180ProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform9?y6Federico, G. E. Pizzigallo P. Nervo O. Ranno L. Ortona1979aRicerca dell'anticorpo contro il virus A (=HAAb) per 1'epidemiologia e la diagnosi dell/epatite A445-452-Bollettino da Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese58 not availableProCite Record Number: 170Journal Short Form workform -78:27-38.0300-8665 (Print)3074484eng|T\|7|8Fattal, B. Margalith, M. Shuval, H. I. Wax, Y. Morag, A.1987{Viral antibodies in agricultural populations exposed to aerosols from wastewater irrigation during a viral disease outbreak899-906Am J Epidemiol1255!Adolescent Adult Aerosols Agricultural Workers' Diseases/*epidemiology/etiology/immunology Antibodies, Viral/*analysis Child Child, Preschool *Disease Outbreaks Echovirus Infections/*epidemiology/etiology/immunology Epidemiologic Methods Humans Infant Israel Middle Aged Water MicrobiologyMayThe presence of antibodies to eight enteroviruses (echovirus types 4, 7, and 9, coxsackievirus types A9, B1, B3, and B4, and hepatitis A virus) and varicella-zoster virus was determined during a two-year period, 1980-1981, in paired blood samples of 777 persons in selected agricultural communities (kibbutzim) in Israel. These communities were divided into several categories on the basis of wastewater utilization for sprinkler irrigation and/or fish ponds. Among the nine viral antibodies studied, there was a consistent and significant excess of antibodies to echovirus type 4 only, particularly in the age group 0-5 years, in kibbutzim that had been exposed to aerosols from sprinkler irrigation with partially treated wastewater from nearby towns. This finding may be attributed to a major national echovirus type 4 epidemic, which had peaked shortly before the collection of the blood samples. The fact that no similar excess of the other viral antibodies studiedH?{+Burkhardt III W. W. D. Watkins S. R. Rippey1992OSurvival and replication of male-specific bacteriophages in molluscan shellfish 1371-1373&Applied and Environmental Microbiology484:The survival and replication of male-specific bacteriophages in hard-shelled clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and their homogenates were examined to further assess their potential utility as indicator organisms. Trials were conducted in the presence and absence of a suitable bacterial host, Escherichia coli HS[pFamp]R. Results of this study demonstrated that male-specific bacteriophages were unable to replicate in hard-shelled clams, with or without added host cells. In addition, the densities of these bacteriophages were stable for up to 7 days in shellfish held at ambient seawater temperatures (less than 25 degrees C). Evidence of replication, although not observed in live shellfish, was found to occur in temperature-abused shellfish homogenates and supernatants, but only when a suitable bacterial host was present. ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform?}3Eisenstein, A. B. R. D. Aach W. Jacobson A. Goldman19639An epidemic of infectious hepatitis in a general hospital171-174+Journal of the American Medical Association185ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform'?~3Bhattacharji, L. M. A. L. Saha M. A. Sampathkumaran1963mInvestigation of an outbreak of infectious hepatitis in a small town in West Bengal during July-October, 1960550-562"Indian Journal of Medical Research51ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform? Flehmig, B.1981cHepatitis A virus in cell culture II. Growth characteristics of hepatitis A virus in FRhK-4/R cells73-81#Medical Microbiology and Immunology1702The propagation and adaptation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in human embryo kidney cells (HKC) is shown. The growth curve of HAV in the first passage through HKC is compared to the growth curve in the tenth passage through HKC. It is shown that in the course of 18 passages through HKC, HAV adapted to these cells causing the virus to grow much more rapidly. The cell-bound HAV is compared to the HAV released in the cell-culture supernatant during the ninth passage through HKC. The HAV from the tenth passage through HKC is shown to be able to replicate also in a human embryo fibroblast strain (HFS). Furthermore, adaptation of the HAV to HFS is demonstrated. ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform? Hucko, M.1989SConcentration of poliovirus type I from cow milk using an adsorption-elution method283-2877Journal of Hygiene Epidemiology Microbiology Immunology333Cow milk was experimentally contaminated with a vaccine strain of poliovirus type I. A concentration procedure was utilized to assay for the virus in a milk sample using adsorption on aluminium sulphate at pH 4.5-5.5, aluminium sulphate concentration being 0.15 g. 1(-1), followed by elution with 0.1 M Na2HPO4 pH 9.5 and subsequent detection in cultured VERO cells (kidney cells from the monkey Cercopithecus aethiops). The yield of the virus ranged from 14 to 58% of the inoculated amount, the mean value being 27%.ProCite Record Number: 180Journal Short Form workform?+Gauss-Muller, V. F. Lottspeich F. Deinhardt19869Characterization of hepatitis A virus structural proteins732-736Virology1552HAV particles isolated from infected cells banded at buoyant densities of 1.42, 1.32, and 1.20 g/ml, and distinctive protein patterns were established by gel electrophoresis and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. The relatively higher amounts of p30 in particles with lower buoyant densities suggest that this protein is VP0 and is part of the immature picornavirion. The protein elution profiles obtained by HPLC were virtually identical for all the HAV strains examined but differed from those of other picornaviruses. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of VP1 and VP2 was determined and aligned to the nucleotide sequence. Sequencing VP0 and VP3 was not possible, probably because the amino termini are blocked. VP1, VP3, and VP0 induced specific antibodies in rabbits. ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workformB?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963pFood-borne epidemics of infectious hepatitis C. Food-borne epidemic in a school for American Military dependents19AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)15ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968FReports of four outbreaks A. Arkansas - Benton and Washington Counties11-13Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform?)Goldstein, D. M. W. M. Hammon H. R. Viets1946GAn outbreak of polioencephalitis among Navy cadets, possibly foodborne.569-573JAMA131 not availableProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform9?Wood, G. W. M. R. Adams1992vEffects of acidification, bacterial fermentation, and temperature on the survival of rotavirus in a model weaning food52-55Journal of Food Protection551}Infant-foods, postweaning-interval, rotavirus, temperature, acidification, fermentation, antiviral-properties, heat-treatmentThe effect of acidification, bacterial fermentation, and temperature on the survival of SA-ll rotavirus in model infant weaning foods was investigated. The influence of added organic acids and of bacterial fermentation on rotavirus survival was explicable solely by the pH achieved. The rotavirus was stable at temperatures representative of tropical ambient and at pH values typical of lactic fermented foods (3.8-4.1). Starch gelatinization temperatures were sufficient to inactivate rotavirus rapidly at neutral pH. Thus, cooking would kill virus although recontamination would remain a concern. A similar lethality to that at neutral pH could be observed in acidified media at lower temperatures. Although effective against bacterial pathogens, lactic fermentation of weaning foods confers little protection against rotavirus unless combined with a mild heat treatment such as might be used prior to serving to enhance palatability.ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workformc?8Hassen, A. R. Hachicha N. Jedidi F. Agbalika P. Harteman19910A method for recovery of enteroviruses from milk261-268Arch. Inst. Pasteur Tunis683-4tA method of detection of enteric viruses in milk was studied. The high protein content of milk and the protein nature of enterovirus allowed the detection of these viruses using the organic acid flocculation method. The poliovirus type 1 (Mahoney strains) and the E.C.H.O.1 isolated from the environment were used as virus model and were inoculated to creamed, half-creamed and whole UHT commercialized milk. The method consists on a milk sample clarification with acid precipitation and centrifugation. The clarified extract is reduced to a final volume of 10 to 15 ml after addition of beef extract powder and protein precipitation. This technique allows the recovery of 26 to 36% of poliovirus type 1 and 10 to 46% of E.C.H.O.1 viruses. In this work, the ferric chloride (FeCl3), added in 0.5 to 1 mM final concentration, was used as an adjuvant for the organic acid precipitation.ProCite Record Number: 190Journal Short Form workform,?`Raska, K. J. Helcl J. Jezek Z. Kubelka M. Litov K. Novak J. Radovsky V. Sery J. Zejdl V. Zikmund1966)A mil-borne infectious hepatitis epidemic413-428>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology10ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19683Reports of four outbreaks B. Logan County, Kentucky13-15Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?Hejkal, T. W. C. P. Gerba1981LUptake and survival of enteric viruses in the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus207-211&Applied and Environmental Microbiology411Uptake of poliovirus 1 by the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, was measured to assess the likelihood of contamination by human enteric viruses. Virus was found in all parts of the crab within 2 h after the crab was placed in contaminated artificial seawater. The highest concentrations of virus were found in the hemolymph and digestive tract, but the meat also contained virus. The concentration of virus in the crabs was generally less than in the surrounding water. Changes in salinity did not substantially affect the rate of accumulation. An increase in temperature from 15 to 25 degrees C increased the rates of both uptake and removal. Poliovirus survived up to 6 days in crabs at a temperature of 15 degrees C and a salinity of 10 g/kg. When contaminated crabs were boiled, 99.9% of poliovirus 1, simian rotavirus SA11, and a natural isolate of echovirus 1 were inactivated within 8 min. These data demonstrate that viruses in crabs should not pose a serious health hazard if recommended cooking procedures are used. ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workformy?aLasta, J. J. H. Blackwell A. Sadir M. Gallinger F. Marcoveccio M. Zamorano B. Ludden R. Rodriguez1992yCombined treatments of heat, irradiation, and pH effects on infectivity of foot-and-mouth disease virus in bovine tissues36-39Journal of Food Science571_Beef, foot-and-mouth-disease, food-irradiation, heat-treatment, pH, viruses, sensory-evaluationVarious traditional methods for processing meat products were examined for their virucidal effects on the A, O, and C serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Aging, curing, heating at 78 degrees C for 20 min or irradiation (1.5 Mrad, 2.4 Mrad) that did not alter the sensory characteristics of the product were used singly or in combination. The only processing treatment that was virucidal was the combination of heat and gamma irradiation.ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?7De Medici, D. F. Beneduce A. Fiore C. Scalfaro L. Croci1998VApplication of reverse transcriptase-nested-PCR for detection of poliovirus in mussels51-56*International Journal of Food Microbiology401In order to identify polioviruses in molluscs, we hereby propose a method based on precipitation with PEG 6000 followed by the use of a commercial kit (RNAfast II-Molecular System-San Diego) for the extraction and purification of viral RNA. The RT-PCR phase is followed by a second amplification using nested primers to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the method. Tests were carried out on mollusc samples spiked with Poliovirus 1. Results showed that in samples subjected only to one round of PCR it was possible to detect Poliovirus concentrations as small as 10(3)TCID50/ml. The use of nested-PCR makes the system more sensitive and specific enabling the identification of Poliovirus concentrations as small as 1 TCID50/ml. ProCite Record Number: 200Journal Short Form workform?Centers for Disease Control1991'Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1989-19901-21%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report403For the 2-year period 1989-1990, 16 states reported 26 outbreaks due to water intended for drinking; an estimated total of 4,288 persons became ill in these outbreaks. Giardia lamblia was implicated as the etiologic agent for seven of the 12 outbreaks in which an agent was identified. The outbreaks of giardiasis were all associated with ingestion of unfiltered surface water or surface-influenced groundwater. An outbreak with four deaths was attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, the only bacterial pathogen implicated in any of the outbreak investigations. An outbreak of remitting, relapsing diarrhea was associated with cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)-like bodies, whose role in causing diarrheal illness is being studied. Two outbreaks due to hepatitis A and one due to a Norwalk-like agent were associated with use of well water. Eighteen states reported a total of 30 outbreaks due to the use of recreational water, which resulted in illness for an estimated total of 1,062 persons. These 30 reports comprised 13 outbreaks of whirlpool- or hot tub-associated Pseudomonas folliculitis; 13 outbreaks of swimming-associated gastroenteritis, including five outbreaks of shigellosis; one outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a swimming pool; and three cases of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria. The national surveillance of outbreaks of waterborne diseases, which has proceeded for 2 decades, continues to be a useful means for characterizing the epidemiology of waterborne diseases. ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?Herrmann, J. E. D. O. Cliver1973KRapid method to determine labeling specificity of radioactive enteroviruses313-314Applied Microbiology252The specified of labeling enteroviruses with 32P-labeled NaH2PO4 or 14C-leucine can be determined by comparing the percent adsorption of infective particles and radioactivity to membrane (Millipore) filters.ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?ORuddy, S. J. R. F. Johnson J. W. Mosley J. B. Atwater M. A. Rossetti J. C. Hart1969(An epidemic of clam-associated hepatitis649-655+Journal of the American Medical Association2084 not availableProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968.Reports of four outbreaks C. Amboy, Washington16-18Hepatitis Surveillance28ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workform?Hoff, J. C. R. C. Becker1969ZThe accumulation and elimination of crude and clarified poliovirus suspension by shellfish53-61 American Journal of Epidemiology90 not availableProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workformJ?Bouchriti, N. S. M. Goyal1992LEvaluation of three methods for the concentration of poliovirus from oysters403-408 Microbiologica154jThree methods for the concentration of poliovirus from oyster homogenates were compared. The adsorption-elution-precipitation method gave the lowest average virus recovery (24.1%), while the beef extract elution-acid precipitation method and the non-fat dry milk elution-acid precipitation methods gave recoveries of 47.2% and 39.6%, respectively. Although the overall recovery rates with these methods were lower than those reported in previous studies, recoveries of 40-47% obtained with the elution-precipitation methods used in the present study are considered to be above average in terms of recovery efficiency. ProCite Record Number: 210Journal Short Form workformB?~Ticehurst, J. T. J. Popkin J. P. Bryan B. L. Innis J. F. Duncan A. Ahmed M. Iqbal I. Malik A. Z. Kapikian L. J. Legters, et al1992Association of hepatitis E virus with an outbreak of hepatitis in Pakistan: serological responses and pattern of virus excretion84-92Journal of Medical Virology362Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a positive-strand RNA agent, has been associated with enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Asia, Africa, and Mexico. To evaluate the role of HEV in an outbreak of hepatitis in Pakistan, we used immune electron microscopy to detect 1) antibody to HEV, for evidence of infection, and 2) virus, to determine the pattern of HEV excretion. Paired sera from 2 patients were assayed for antibody by using reference HEV: one seroconverted, an atypical finding for HEV infections; the other had high levels of anti-HEV in both sera. Virus particles with the size (29 x 31 nm) and morphology of HEV were detected in feces from 10 of 85 patients and serologically identified as HEV by using reference antibodies from an HEV-infected chimpanzee. One of these HEV-containing specimens was collected 9 days before the onset of jaundice; it was among feces from 38 outpatients with nonspecific symptoms and biochemical hepatitis, 12 of whom subsequently developed jaundice. The other 9 feces with HEV were among 36 collected within 7 days of the onset of acute icteric hepatitis; all 11 feces from days 8 to 15 were negative for HEV. Fecal concentrations of HEV appeared to be lower than those of many enteric viruses: only one specimen contained as many as 5 particles per EM grid square. It is concluded that HEV was etiologically associated with the epidemic and was predominantly excreted at very low levels during the first week of jaundice. ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?5Hill, W. F. Jr. F. E. Hamblet W. H. Benton E. W. Akin1970OUltraviolet devitalization of eight selected enteric viruses in estuarine water805-812Applied Microbiology195The effect of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the devitalization of eight selected enteric viruses suspended in estuarine water was determined. The surviving fractions of each virus were calculated and then plotted against the UV exposure time or purposes of comparison. Analytical assessment of the survival data for each virus consisted of least squares regression analysis for determination of intercepts and slope functions. All data were examined for statistical significance. when the slope function of each virus was compared against the slope function of poliovirus type 1, the analytical findings indicated that poliovirus types 2 and 3, echovirus types 1 and 11, and coxsackievirus A-9 exhibited similar devitalization characteristics in that no statistically significant difference was found (p > 0.005). Conversely, the devitalization characteristics of coxsackievirus B-1 and rovirus type 1 were dissimilar from those of poliovirus type 1 in that a statistically significant difference was found between the slope functions (P < 0.005). This observed difference in devitalization of coxsackievirus B-1 and rovirus type 1 was attributed primarily to the frequency distribution of single and aggregate virions, the geometric configuration, the size of the aggregates, and the severity of aggregation. The devitalization curve of coxsackievirus B-1 was characteristic of a retardant die-away curve. The devitalization curve of rovirus type 1 was characteristic of a multihit-type curve. The calculated devitalization half-life values for poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3; echovirus types 1 and 11; coxsackievirus types A-9 and B-1; and reovirus type 1 were 2.8, 3.1, 2.7, 2.8, 3.2, 3.1, 4.0, 4.0 sec, respectively. These basic data should facilitate an operative extrapolation of the findings to the applied situation. It was concluded that UV can be highly effective and porvide a reliable safety factor in treating estuarine water.ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workformUF?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1964Shellfish-associated infectious hepatitis A. Clam-associated infectious hepatitis - New jersey and Pennsylvania: follow-up reportAHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)30-32ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1967+Foodborne outbreaks: status report for 196716-181National Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform.?(Hyde, J. L. J. H. Blackwell J. J. Callis1975iEffect of pasteurization and evaporation on foot-and-mouth disease virus in whole milk from infected cows305-309(Canadian journal of Comparative Medicine39 not availableProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?2Biziagos, E. J. Passagot J. M. Crance R. Deloince1988NLong-term survival of hepatitis A virus and poliovirus type 1 in mineral water 2705-2710&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5411uThe survival in mineral water of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and poliovirus type 1 was compared, under controlled experimental conditions, at 4 degrees C and room temperature. Viral infectivity titers were determined by cell culture titration, while HAV antigenicity was monitored by radioimmunoassay-endpoint titration. Both viruses persisted longest at 4 degrees C. At this temperature, after 1 year of exposure, the inactivation of either HAV or poliovirus type 1 was not important. At room temperature, poliovirus type 1 was not detected after 300 days, whereas HAV was still infectious. For both temperatures, the computed regression coefficients of best-fit lines for inactivation rates for the two viruses were significantly different. The survival of HAV was also studied at 4 degrees C and room temperature in mineral water with 5- and 50-micrograms/ml protein concentrations (i.e., purity of the virus suspension) for 120 days. As shown by a comparison of the regression coefficients for the inactivation rates, the stability of HAV in mineral water depends on protein concentration and temperature. Radioimmunoassay-endpoint titration results showed inactivation patterns similar to those of cell culture titration, with the most significant reduction in HAV antigenicity at room temperature. At the two temperatures, the infectivity of HAV declined at a faster rate than the antigenicity. ProCite Record Number: 220Journal Short Form workform?6Hughes, J. H. A. V. Tuomari D. R. Mann V. V. Hamparian19842Latex immunoassay for rapid detection of rotavirus441-447 Journal of Clinical Microbiology203A latex agglutination (LA) test was evaluated for the detection of human rotaviruses in stool specimens. Both antiserum and immunoglobulin G (IgG)-sensitized latex particles were used, with IgG-coated beads being more sensitive for human rotavirus antigen detection. Latex beads sensitized with anti-simian-SA-11 IgG were stable for at least 8 months when stored at 4 degrees C. The sensitivity of the test was compared with that of the Rotazyme (Abbott Laboratories, Diagnostics Div., North Chicago, Ill.) test. The least number of particles detected was 9.0 X 10(5) particles by the LA test versus 4.5 X 10(5) particles by the Rotazyme test. When 10 stool specimens were serially diluted for antigen endpoint determinations, the geometric mean titer by the LA test was 592 versus 1,280 by the Rotazyme test. Forty-three stool samples positive by the Rotazyme test were all positive by the LA test, and no false negative results were detected. Unconfirmed false positive reactions ranged between 8 and 24%. The LA test for rotavirus antigen detection is direct, easy to perform, sensitive, quick, and may have application for use in diagnostic laboratories, emergency rooms, and physician's offices. ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform<?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1964gShellfish-associated infectious hepatitis C. Oyster-associated infectious hepatitis, North Carolina35-36AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)19ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform?Rawal, B. D. S. H. Godbole1964GEpidemiology of water borne infectious hepatitis in a locality in Poona439-444!Indian Journal of Medical Science18ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workformx|7j2Landry, E. F. Vaughn, J. M. Vicale, T. J. Mann, R.1982bInefficient accumulation of low levels of monodispersed and feces-associated poliovirus in oysters 1362-1369Appl. Environ. Microbiol.446Animals Bivalvia/microbiology Feces/*microbiology Ostreidae/*microbiology Poliovirus/*growth & development/isolation & purification Seawater *Water MicrobiologyDecmThe accumulation of low levels (0.002 to 0.18 PFU/ml) of both feces-associated and monodispersed poliovirus by oysters (Crassostrea virginica or C. gigas) and clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) was investigated. These levels were chosen to duplicate the conditions present in light to moderately polluted waters. Experiments were performed in both small- and large-scale flowing seawater systems, developed to mimic the natural marine habitats of shellfish. Under these experimental conditions, viral accumulation by physiologically active shellfish was only noted when water column concentrations exceeded approximately 0.01 PFU/ml. Bioaccumulation increased with increasing concentrations of both monodispersed and feces-associated viruses. At virus concentrations below this level, viruses were seldom detected in either clams or oysters. Evidence indicated that the lack of accumulation was not the result of inefficient extraction or detection methods. The modified Cat-Floc-beef extract procedure used in the experiment was found to be capable of detecting as few as 1.5 to 2.0 PFU per shellfish. Evidence is presented to indicate that an uptake-depuration equilibrium was present at virus exposure levels of 0.10 PFU/ml, but not at 0.01 PFU/ml. The results suggested that viral accumulation by shellfish may not be efficient at water column concentrations below congruent to 0.01 PFU/ml.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6297388Landry, E F Vaughn, J M Vicale, T J Mann, R Fda-224-79-2467/fd/fda Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982 Dec;44(6):1362-9.0099-2240 (Print)6297388eng?2Naik, S. R. R. Aggarwal P.N. Salunke N.N. Mehrotra1992>A large waterborne viral hepatitis E epidemic in Kanpur, India597-604 Bull. W.H.O.70ProCite Record Number: 230Journal Short Form workform?PMahoney, F. J. T. A. Farley K. Y. Kelso S. A. Wilson J. M. Horan L. M. McFarland1992DAn outbreak of hepatitis A associated with swimming in a public pool613-618Journal of Infectious Diseases1654A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A was traced to a campground in Louisiana. Among 822 campers during one weekend, 20 developed hepatitis A. Case-patients ranged in age from 4 to 36 years; the highest attack rate (6.4%) was for children aged 5-9 years. A case-control study revealed that case-patients were more likely than controls to have swum in a public swimming pool on Saturday afternoon (19/19 vs. 26/38; odds ratio [OR], undefined; lower 95% confidence limit, 1.7). Case-patients were more likely than controls to have swum in the jacuzzi pool (16/19 vs. 10/26; OR, 8.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-47.1) or adult pool A (19/19 vs. 15/26; OR, undefined; lower 95% confidence limit, 2.6). Case-patients were also more likely to have swum for greater than 1 h and to have put their heads under the water. Because of the design of the filtering system of adult pool A, a cross-connection between a sewage line and the pool water intake line was possible. This outbreak may have been caused by transmission of hepatitis A through swimming; thus, swimming may serve as a mode of transmission of hepatitis A virus, especially among small children. ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workformS=|7QLiu, W. Tang, F. Fontanet, A. Zhan, L. Zhao, Q. M. Zhang, P. H. Wu, X. M. Zuo, S. Q. Baril, L. Vabret, A. Xin, Z. T. Shao, Y. M. Yang, H. Cao, W. C.2004?Long-term SARS coronavirus excretion from patient cohort, China1841-3Emerg Infect Dis1010Adult China Feces/virology Female Humans Male RNA, Viral/isolation & purification Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Risk Factors *SARS Virus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome/virology Sputum/virology Time Factors *Virus SheddingOctrThis study investigated the long-term excretion of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus in sputum and stool specimens from 56 infected patients. The median (range) duration of virus excretion in sputa and stools was 21 (14-52) and 27 (16-126) days, respectively. Coexisting illness or conditions were associated with longer viral excretion in stools.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15504274wLiu, Wei Tang, Fang Fontanet, Arnaud Zhan, Lin Zhao, Qiu-Min Zhang, Pan-He Wu, Xiao-Ming Zuo, Shu-Qing Baril, Lawrence Vabret, Astrid Xin, Zhong-Tao Shao, Yi-Ming Yang, Hong Cao, Wu-Chun U19AI51915/AI/United States NIAID Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. United States Emerging infectious diseases Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Oct;10(10):1841-3.1080-6040 (Print)15504?1Department of National Health and Welfare, Canada1965&Infectious hepatitis, British Columbia24-25Epidemiological Bulletin9ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workform?&Zejdl, M. M. Litov J. Helcl O. Lhotsky1965-Infectious hepatitis epidemic spread by water374-386>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology9ProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workform?Jubb, G.1915,A third outbreak of poliovirus at West Kirby67Lancet1 not availableProCite Record Number: 240Journal Short Form workformq?)Hughes, M. S. P. V. Coyle J. H. Connolly 19928Enteroviruses in recreational waters of Northern Ireland529-536Epidemiology and Infection1083Virus surveillance of Northern Ireland recreational waters, between April 1986 and May 1989 demonstrated widespread enteroviral contamination of coastal and inland waters. In 1986, enteroviruses were detected in 4 of 46 (8.7%) water samples, collected from 6 coastal bathing waters. In 1987, 49 of 107 (45.8%) samples, from 16 coastal bathing waters, yielded enteroviruses; 33 of the enterovirus positive samples passed one or both of the coliform standards outlined by the European Economic Community (EEC) bathing water directive (76/160/EEC). Enteroviruses were also detected in 33 of 39 (84.6%) samples tested from 3 inland recreational waters. ProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?Hurst, C. J. T. Goyke1986GImproved method for recovery of enteric viruses from wastewater sludges 1321-1324Water Research2010fVirus; enteric virus; sludge beef extract; aluminium chloríde; organic flocculation; recovery methodsaVarious parameters involved in recovering indigenous enteric viruses from wastewater sludges aided by buffered beef extract elution and subsequent organic flocculation concerntration were examined. a statistically significant (P = 0.03) reciprocal correlation was found to exist between the ratio of eluant to sludge solids content used during the elution step, and the efficiency of subsequently concertrating viruses from the produced sludge eluates by means of organic flocculation. A hypothesis is proposed by which to explain the concentration of viruses during beef extract-induced organic flocculation.ProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?0Hernandez, R. H. Jr. J. H. Greenberg R. E. Olson1966FAn outbreak infectious hepatitis probably due to contamination of food247-252 American Journal of Epidemiology842 not availableProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?Kaplan, A. S. J. L. Melnick1952QEffect of milk and cream on the thermal inactivation of human poliomyelitis virus525-534!American Journal of Public Health42 not availableProCite Record Number: 250Journal Short Form workform?=Tani, N. K. Shimamoto K. Ichimura Y. Nishii S. Tomita Y. Oda 1992#Enteric virus levels in river water45-48Water Research261ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workformA?9Hyypiä, T. P. Stålhandske R. Vainionpää U. Pettersson19840Detection of enteroviruses by spot hybridization436-438 Journal of Clinical Microbiology193LA cloned partial cDNA copy of the coxsackievirus B3 genome was used for detecting enteroviruses in infected cells by employing a nucleic acid hybridization procedure. Cells infected with coxsackieviruses A and B, echovirus, and poliovirus gave positive hybridization signals, whereas cells infected with nonrelated viruses did not. ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1965JSpecial report : Oklahoma. Common source outbreak in a consolidated school14AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)23ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968:Reports of three outbreaks B. washington Island, Wisconsin16-18Hepatitis Surveillance29ProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workform ?Kaplan, A. S. J. L. Melnick1954XEffect of milk and other dairy products on the thermal inactivation of coxsackie viruses 1174-1184!American Journal of Public Health44 not availableProCite Record Number: 260Journal Short Form workforml?Inouye, S. R. Hondo19907Microplate hybridization of amplified viral DNA segment 1469-1472 Journal of Clinical Microbiology286We have developed a simple hybridization method for a DNA segment which is amplified by the polymerase chain reaction: after heat denaturation, the amplified DNA segment with a length of more than 300 bases is adsorbed to microplate wells in the presence of 1.5 M NaCl or 0.5 M ammonium sulfate; the immobilized DNA is hybridized with a biotin-labeled DNA probe; then, the hybridization signal is detected by streptavidin-conjugated beta-galactosidase or peroxidase. This method has several advantages over the conventional dot blot hybridization method: (i) radioisotopes are not used, (ii) synthetic oligonucleotide for the probe is not needed, (iii) the time required for washing of the solid phase is greatly reduced, and (iv) the baking and prehybridization procedures are eliminated. By this method, we were able to detect viral genomes in vesicle specimens from patients infected with varicella-zoster virus. ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1965#Reports of common vehicle epidemics16-19AHepatitis Surveillance (Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA)2412, 13ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1968(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 1968321National Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workform2?ZKaplan, J. E. G. W. Gary R. C. Baron N. Singh L. B. Schonberger R. Feldman H. B. Greenberg1982xEpidemiology of Norwalk gastroenteritis and the role of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis756-761Annals of Internal Medicine966 Pt 1Outbreaks of Norwalk gastroenteritis, which may involve persons of all ages, occur during all seasons and in various locations. Waterborne, foodborne, and person-to-person modes of transmission have been described, and secondary person-to-person transmission is common. Outbreaks generally end in about 1 week; longer outbreaks occur only when new groups of susceptible persons are introduced, usually in the setting of a persistent common source of infection. The illness is generally mild and characterized by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Vomiting is the predominant symptom among children, whereas diarrhea is commoner among adults. Forty-two percent of 74 outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis investigated by the Centers for Disease Control from 1976 to 1980 were attributed to the Norwalk virus. The rest resembled Norwalk outbreaks clinically and epidemiologically and were probably caused by 27-nm viral agents similar to the Norwalk virus. ProCite Record Number: 270Journal Short Form workformZ?)Ansari, S. A. S. R. Farrah G. R. Chaudhry1992uPresence of human immunodeficiency virus nucleic acids in wastewater and their detection by polymerase chain reaction 3984-3990&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5812'The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) released by infected individuals or present in human and hospital wastes can potentially cause contamination problems. The presence of HIV-1 was investigated in 16 environmental samples, including raw wastewater, sludge, final effluent, soil, and pond water, collected from different locations. A method was developed to extract total nucleic acids in intact form directly from the raw samples or from the viral concentrates of the raw samples. The isolated nucleic acids were analyzed for the presence of HIV-1 by using in vitro amplification of the target sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. HIV-1-specific proviral DNA and viral RNA were detected in the extracted nucleic acids obtained from three wastewater samples by this method. The specificity of the PCR-amplified products was determined by Southern blot hybridization with an HIV-1-specific oligonucleotide probe, SK19. The isolated nucleic acids from wastewater samples were also screened for the presence of poliovirus type 1, representing a commonly found enteric virus, and simian immunodeficiency virus, representing, presumably, rare viruses. While poliovirus type 1 viral RNA was found in all of the wastewater samples, none of the samples yielded a simian immunodeficiency virus-specific product. No PCR-amplified product was yielded when wastewater samples were directly used for the detection of HIV-1 and poliovirus type 1. The wastewater constituents appeared to be inhibitory to the enzymes reverse transcriptase and DNA polymerase. ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?$Heinz, B. A. D. O. Cliver G. L. Hehl1986DEnumeration of enterovirus particles by scanning electron microscopy71-83J. Virol. Methods141QVirion enumeration; scanning electron microscopy; electrophoresis; picornavirusesrEnumeration of virus particles requires relatively concentrated and uniformly dispersed virus preparations, which is difficult to achieve by the usual methods of negative staining and transmission electron microscopy. We have developed an electrophoretic method that concentrates enteroviruses onto a polycarbonate membrane for examination by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. The electrophoretic apparatus comprises three chambers in electrical series, each containing 3.5 ml of dilute buffer. The center chamber is inoculated with virus. A 15-nm porosity membrane, which does not pass virus, separates the center from the side chambers. A constant current is applied, and chilled buffer is pumped past the electrodes for 2 h. The virus suspension is recovered, and changes in titer (or radioactivity if labeled virus is used) due to electrophoresis are measured. Buffer pH, relative to the viral isoelectric points, determines the direction of virus migration. Particle counts are calculated from the mean of 25 randomly chosen fields photographed at 35-60,000 X magnification and related to titers measured by plaque assay.ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1966;Infectious hepatitis - Nassau County, Long Island, New York9-10$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report152ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972RReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A A. Sumter, South Carolina6-7Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workform?Katz, M. S. A. Plotkin19677Minimal infective dose of attenuated poliovirus for man 1837-1840!American Journal of Public Health57 not availableProCite Record Number: 280Journal Short Form workformU?Dee, S. W. J. C. Fogleman1992@Rates of inactivation of waterborne coliphages by monochloramine 3136-3141&Applied and Environmental Microbiology589hA sophisticated water quality monitoring program was established to evaluate virus removal through Denver's 1-million-gal (ca. 4-million-liter)/day Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Plant. As a comparison point for the reuse demonstration plant, Denver's main water treatment facility was also monitored for coliphage organisms. Through the routine monitoring of the main plant, it was discovered that coliphage organisms were escaping the water treatment processes. Monochloramine residuals and contact times (CT values) required to achieve 99% inactivation were determined for coliphage organisms entering and leaving this conventional water treatment plant. The coliphage tested in the effluent waters had higher CT values on the average than those of the influent waters. CT values established for some of these coliphages suggest that monochloramine alone is not capable of removing 2 orders of magnitude of these specific organisms in a typical water treatment facility. Electron micrographs revealed one distinct type of phage capable of escaping the water treatment processes and three distinct types of phages in all. ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?'Jansen, R. W. J. E. Newbold S. M. Lemon1985mCombined immunoaffinity cDNA-RNA hybridization assay for detection of hepatitis A virus in clinical specimens984-989 Journal of Clinical Microbiology226To apply cDNA-RNA hybridization methods to the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in clinical materials, we developed a two-step method in which a microtiter-based, solid-phase immunoadsorption procedure incorporating a monoclonal anti-HAV capture antibody was followed by direct blotting of virus eluates to nitrocellulose and hybridization with 32P-labeled recombinant HAV cDNA. This immunoaffinity hybridization method is simple and involves few sample manipulations, yet it retains high sensitivity (10- to 30-fold more than radioimmunoassay) and is capable of detecting approximately 1 X 10(5) to 2 X 10(5) genome copies of virus. The inclusion of the immunoaffinity step removes most contaminating proteins and thus facilitates subsequent immobilization of the virus for hybridization. It also permits positive hybridization signals to be related to specific antigens and adds a level of specificity to the hybridization procedure. When the method was applied to 23 fecal specimens collected from individuals during week 1 of symptoms due to hepatitis A, 13 specimens were found to be reproducibly positive for HAV RNA by immunoaffinity hybridization, whereas only 11 contained viral antigen detectable by radioimmunoassay. ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?EReynolds, R. D. J. J. Simerville K. S. Fiore C. A. keck D. C. Metheny1968Freeze-ball hepatitis48-49Archives of Internal Medicine1221 not availableProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972TReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A B. Worcester, Massachusetts7-8Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?-Knapp, A. C. Godfrey Jr., E. S. W. L. Aycock1926An outbreak of poliomyelitis635-639JAMA87 not availableProCite Record Number: 290Journal Short Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1992cInactivation of poliovirus type 1 in mixed human and swine wastes and by bacteria from swine manure 2016-2021&Applied and Environmental Microbiology586The persistence of poliovirus type 1 (PO1) in mixed septic tank effluent and swine manure slurry was determined, and the antiviral effects of several bacterial cultures isolated from swine manure slurry were demonstrated. In two field experiments, PO1 was consistently inactivated more rapidly in the mixed waste than in the control Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (D-PBS). D values (time [in days] for a 90% reduction of virus titer) were 18.7 and 29.9 for the mixed waste and 56.5 and 51.8 for the D-PBS control, respectively. The virus inactivation in the mixed waste was temperature dependent. A comparison of PO1 inactivation in raw mixed waste, autoclaved mixed waste, and bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed waste at the same pH and temperatures provided an initial demonstration that the virus inactivation in the mixed waste is related, at least in part, to microbial activity. At 25 degrees C, the D value was 6.8 for the mixed waste, 11.2 for the autoclaved mixed waste, and 10.5 for the bacterium-free filtrate of raw mixed waste. At 37 degrees C, D values were 1.3, 3.9, and 3.1 for these three suspending media, respectively. Three bacterial isolates which had shown antiviral effects in a screening test each caused virus inactivation in autoclaved mixed waste, in which the effect of other microorganisms was excluded. Inhibition of PO1 inactivation by protease inhibitors suggests that the virus inactivation in the mixed waste was due in part to proteolytic enzymes produced by bacteria in the waste. ProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?"Jansen, R. W. C. Siegl S. M. lemon1990pMolecular epidemiology of human hepatitis A virus defined by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method 2867-2871PProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 878We describe an immunoaffinity-linked nucleic acid amplification system (antigen-capture/polymerase chain reaction, or AC/PCR) for detection of viruses in clinical specimens and its application to the study of the molecular epidemiology of a picornavirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV). Immunoaffinity capture of virus, synthesis of viral cDNA, and amplification of cDNA by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were carried out sequentially in a single reaction vessel. This approach simplified sample preparation and enhanced the specificity of conventional PCR. AC/PCR detected less than one cell culture infectious unit of virus in 80 microliters of sample. Sequencing of AC/PCR reaction products from 34 virus strains demonstrated remarkable conservation at the nucleotide level among most strains but revealed hitherto unsuspected genetic diversity among human isolates. Epidemiologically related strains were identical or closely related in sequence. Virus strains recovered from epidemics of hepatitis A in the United States and Germany were identical in sequence, providing evidence for a previously unrecognized epidemiologic link between these outbreaks. ProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?1Dismukes, W. E. A. L. Bisno S. Katz R. F. Johnson1969HAn outbreak of gastroenteritis and infectious hepatitis due to raw clams555-561 American Journal of Epidemiology895 not availableProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 196932-33'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 300Journal Short Form workform7?%Jaykus, L. A. R. de Leon M. D. Sobsey1993EApplication of RT-PCR for the detection of enteric viruses in oysters49-53Water Science and Technology273-46Entericviruses; HAV; oysters; polymeric chain reaction Oyster samples processed by adsorption-elution-precipitation were seeded with poliovirus 1 and HAV, and cleaned and concentrated by Freon extraction (2X), PEG precipitation and chloroform extraction. Freon extraction resulted in recoveries of 63-76% for polio and 42-52% for HAV. PEG precipitation/chloroform extraction gave recoveries of 47-50% for polio and 15-19% for HAV. Treated extracts inhibited RT-PCR at 10-2 dilutions. Inhibitors were removed by treatment with the cationic detergent CTAB or Pro-Cipitate/UF adsorption-elution-concentration. Both treatments resulted in samples on which direct RT-PCR was possible. The CTAB procedure was able to detect 78 pfu of polio and 295 pfu of HAV. The Pro-Cipitate procedure was able to detect 70 pfu polio and 2.1 H 103 pfu HAV.ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969-Reports of four outbreaks. D. Ontario, Canada18-19@Hepatitis Surveillance (Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA)28ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972NReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A C. Hatfield, Arkansas8-9Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workformF?&Soares, A. C. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1992/Recover of poliovirus from sludge-amended soils999-1005+Journal of Environmental Science and Health274YSludges, soil-amendments, soil-pollution, microbial-contamination, polioviruses, recoveryProCite Record Number: 310Journal Short Form workform ?&Straub, T. M. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1992XPersistance of viruses in desert soils amended with anaerobically digested sewage sludge636-641&Applied and Environmental Microbiology582ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?6Jehl-Pietri, C. B. Hugues M. Andre J. M. Diez A. Bosch1993zComparison of immunological and molecular hybridization detection methods for the detection of hepatitis A virus in sewage162-166Letters in Applied Microbiology174jImmune electron microscopy (IEM), radioimmunoassay (RIA) and molecular hybridization with a digoxigenin-labelled cDNA probe were compared for the detection of wild-type human hepatitis A virus (HAV) in raw and treated sewage. In the same experiments, classic tests for culturable enteroviruses were carried out. With the hybridization probes, HAV was detected in three of the 13 affluent samples (23%) and in eight out of 13 effluent samples (61%). For four of the effluent samples, positivity revealed by IEM was confirmed by the cDNA probe. In contrast, two of the samples shown as positive by IEM were negative with the probes. Detection of HAV by RIA was negative in all cases. Demonstration of HAV was higher in effluent than in affluent. No particular relationship was established between demonstration of HAV, on the one hand, and the various concentrations of enteroviruses observed in the same samples on the other. Overall, if all the results, irrespective of the type of water (affluent or effluent), are taken together, 50% of the sewage samples tested were found to contain HAV by one or another method of detection. ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972LReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A E. Wickes, Arkansas10-11Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform?#Kostenbader Jr., K. D. D. O. Cliver19796Purchased cell culture for detecting foodborne viruses888-889Journal of Food Protection42 not availableProCite Record Number: 320Journal Short Form workform@?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention19913Summary of notifiable diseases, United States, 19901-61%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report3953TThis publication contains summary tables of the official statistics for calendar year 1990 on the occurrence of notifiable diseases in the United States. This information is solicited and compiled through entries to the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). In this year's publication, an additional section of information has been added. This section is a bibliography that identifies references for most notifiable diseases. Subject matter experts for each disease were consulted, and these experts identified up to three references they believed to be most useful or informative. Part I contains information on morbidity for each of the 49 currently notifiable conditions. The tables show the number of cases of notifiable diseases reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) for 1990, as well as the distribution of cases by month, geographic location, patient's age, and race/ethnicity. Part II contains graphs and maps depicting summary data for many of the notifiable conditions described in tabular form in Part I. Part III includes tables showing the number of notifiable diseases reported to CDC and to the National Office of Vital Statistics for the past 50 years. It also has a table of deaths associated with specified notifiable diseases reported to the National Center for Health Statistics, CDC, for the period 1979-1988. ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?%Jia, X. Y. E. Ehrenfeld D. F. Summers19914Proteolytic activity of hepatitis A virus 3C protein 2595-2600Journal of Virology655Although the genome organization and overall structure of hepatitis A virus are similar to those of other picornaviruses, nothing is known about the protein-processing pathways used by this virus to generate its capsid and nonstructural proteins from the polyprotein precursor. RNA transcripts of cloned hepatitis A virus cDNAs representing parts of the P2 and P3 regions of the genome were translated in rabbit reticulocyte lysates in vitro, and the translation products were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis before and after immunoprecipitation with specific antisera. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated rapid cleavage at the P2-P3 junction, followed by further but incomplete processing at the 3C-3D junction. Mutation of the 3C coding sequence eliminated all cleavages. Efforts to demonstrate intermolecular cutting of the P2-P3 cleavage site by active 3C or 3CD sequences were unsuccessful; thus, it is likely that this cleavage occurs by intramolecular reaction, in cis. ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969<Report of three outbreaks. A. los Angeles County, California6-7@Hepatitis Surveillance (Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA)30ProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1970(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 197030'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 330Journal Short Form workform?Robertson, B. H. R.W. Jansen B. Khanna A. Totsuka O. V. Nainan G. Siegl A. Widell H. S. Margolis S. Isomura K. Ito T. Ishizu Y. Moritsugu S. M. Lemon1992\Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographic regions 1365-1377J. Gen. Virol.736zA pairwise comparison of the nucleic acid sequence of 168 bases from 152 wild-type or unique cell culture-adapted strains of hepatitis A virus (HAV) revealed that HAV strains can be differentiated genetically into seven unique genotypes (I to VII). In general, the nucleotide sequence of viruses in different genotypes differs at 15 to 25% of positions within this segment of the genome. Viruses from four of the genotypes (I, II, III and VII) were recovered from cases of hepatitis A in humans, whereas viruses from the other three genotypes (IV, V and VI) were isolated only from simian species developing a hepatitis A-like illness during captivity. Among non-epidemiologically related human HAV strains, 81 were characterized as genotype I, and 19 as genotype III. Within each of these major genotypes, there were two distinct groups (subgenotypes), which differed in sequence at approximately 7.5% of base positions. Each genotype and subgenotype has a characteristic amino acid sequence in this region of the polyprotein, with the most divergent genotypes differing at 10 of 56 residues. Strains recovered from some geographical regions belonged to a common (endemic) genotype, whereas strains from other regions belonged to several, probably imported, genotypes. Thus, HAV strains recovered in North America were for the most part closely related at the nucleotide sequence level, whereas in other regions, such as Japan and Western Europe, HAV strains were derived from multiple genotypes or sub-genotypes. These data indicate that patterns of endemic transmission can be differentiated from situations in which infections are imported due to travel.ProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workforma?1Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf J. L. Melnick1986\Detection of hepatitis A virus in seeded estuarine samples by hybridization with cDNA probes711-717&Applied and Environmental Microbiology524BThe development and trials of a nucleic acid hybridization test for the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in estuarine samples within 48 h are described. Approximately 10(4) physical particles of HAV per dot could be detected. Test sensitivity was optimized by the consideration of hybridization stringency, 32P energy level, probe concentration, and nucleic acid binding to filters. Test specificity was shown by a lack of cross-hybridization with other enteroviruses and unrelated nucleic acids. Potential false-positive reactions between bacterial DNA in samples and residual vector DNA contamination of purified nucleotide sequences in probes were eliminated by DNase treatment of samples. Humic acid at concentrations of up to 100 mg/liter caused only insignificant decreases in test sensitivity. Interference with hybridization by organic components of virus-containing eluates was removed by proteinase K digestion followed by phenol extraction and ethanol precipitation. The test is suitable for detecting naturally occurring HAV in samples from polluted estuarine environments. ProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 1972 22 &38-40'Center for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?Kott, H. L. Fishelson1974[Survival of enteroviruses on vegetables irrigated with chlorinated oxidation pond effluents290-297Israel Journal of Technology12 not availableProCite Record Number: 340Journal Short Form workform?Winokur, P. L. J. T. Stapleton1992*Immunoglobulin prophylaxis for hepatitis A580-586Clinical Infectious Diseases142Studies conducted over the past 45 years have shown that immunoglobulin (IG) prevents 80%-90% of cases of hepatitis A when administered before exposure or shortly thereafter. Protection is short lived and requires early diagnosis and timely administration of IG to contacts. Inactivated and attenuated hepatitis A virus (HAV) vaccines have recently been developed and should be available for clinical use within the next few years. Evaluation of antibodies to HAV in IG and in IG recipients provides one method of determining the immunogenicity of HAV vaccines. The role of IG in the prevention of hepatitis A is reviewed with emphasis on the relationship of antibody response following IG administration to the efficacy of HAV vaccines. ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?#Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf1989LIn situ hybridization for quantitative assay of infectious hepatitis A virus874-879 Journal of Clinical Microbiology275A method of in situ hybridization using single-stranded RNA probes of opposite polarity for quantitative enumeration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in infected cells has been developed. Kinetic experiments showed that foci of infected cells appeared as early as day 2 postinfection. The absence of foci in cells examined immediately after virus adsorption indicated that foci detected subsequently were related to viral replication. Foci were detected by hybridization with RNA probes complementary to HAV genomic RNA but not with RNA probes identical to HAV genomic RNA. The number of foci observed was linearly related to the HAV dose inoculated. Focus formation was reduced when a virus inoculum was pretreated with guinea pig anti-HAV hyperimmune serum but not when it was pretreated with preimmune serum. The high resolution of hybridization signals and relative rapidity of the test indicated that this technique will be useful for measuring serum neutralizing antibodies and for quantitative assay of infectious HAV. ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1969)Hepatitis outbreak - Garfield, New Jersey70$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report189ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972RReport of seven common-source outbreaks of hepatitis -A G. Locust Grove, Oklahoma13-15Hepatitis Surveillance35ProCite Record Number: 350Journal Short Form workform|7k'Sobsey, M. D. Wallis, C. Melnick, J. L.1975KDevelopment of a simple method for concentrating enteroviruses from oysters21-6Appl Microbiol291qAdsorption Animals Cell Line Culture Techniques Enterovirus/*isolation & purification Enterovirus B, Human/isolation & purification Filtration Food Contamination *Food Microbiology Glycine Haplorhini Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Ion Exchange Resins Kidney Ostreidae/*microbiology Papio Poliovirus/isolation & purification Sodium Chloride Ultrafiltration Virus CultivationJanThe development of a simple method for concentrating enteroviruses from oysters is described. In this method viruses in homogenized oyster tissues are efficiently absorbed to oyster solids at pH 5.5 and low salt concentration. After low-speed centrifugation, the supernatant is discarded and viruses are eluted from the sedimented oyster solids by resuspending them in pH 3.5 glycine-buffered saline. The solids are then removed by low-speed centrifugation, and the virus-containing supernatant is filtered through a 0.2-micronm porosity filter to remove bacteria and other small particulates without removing viruses. The virus-containing filtrate is then concentrated to a volume of a few milliliters by ultrafiltration, and the concentrate obtained is inoculated directly into cell cultures for virus assay. When tested with pools of oysters experimentally contaminated with small amounts of different enteroviruses, virus recovery efficiency averaged 63%.chttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=234154Sobsey, M D Wallis, C Melnick, J L Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. United states Applied microbiology Appl Microbiol. 1975 Jan;29(1):21-6.0003-6919 (Print)234154eng?PFujiyama, S. S. Iino K. Odoh S. Kuzuhara H. Watanabe M. Tanaka K. Mizuno T. Sato1992UTime course of hepatitis A virus antibody titer after active and passive immunization983-988 Hepatology156To investigate the antibody titer necessary to prevent hepatitis A virus infection, either 15 or 7.5 mg/kg of immune serum globulin was injected into 10 antihepatitis A virus negative volunteers and their serum antihepatitis A virus titers were observed for 28 wk. In addition, antibody titers were observed for 96 wk in a phase 1 clinical trial of a hepatitis A vaccine. The two studies were then compared to assess the immunogenicity of the vaccine and the persistence of the antibody. Serum-neutralizing antibody titers that were greater than or equal to 4 (considered as positive) persisted for 18 wk and 14 wk after the injection of 15 and 7.5 mg/kg of globulin, respectively. Hepatitis A virus vaccine recipients showed adequate neutralizing antibody titers, with the groups receiving 1, 0.5 and 0.25 micrograms/dose showing titers of 4(5.5), 4(4.7) and 4(4), respectively, at 18 mo after the third inoculation. These findings suggested that effective blood antibody titers were likely to be retained in the 1.0 micrograms or 0.5 micrograms/dose groups for at least several years. Moreover, the serum antihepatitis A virus titers demonstrated by a modified radioimmunoassay changed in parallel with the neutralizing antibody titers in the volunteers injected with globulin. ProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform?#Jiang, X. M. K. Estes T. G. Metcalf1987ODetection of hepatitis A virus by hybridization with single-stranded RNA probes 2487-2495&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5310An improved method of dot-blot hybridization to detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) was developed with single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) probes. Radioactive and nonradioactive ssRNA probes were generated by in vitro transcription of HAV templates inserted into the plasmid pGEM-1. 32P-labeled ssRNA probes were at least eightfold more sensitive than the 32P-labeled double-stranded cDNA counterparts, whereas biotin-labeled ssRNA probes showed a sensitivity comparable with that of the 32P-labeled double-stranded cDNA counterparts. Hybridization of HAV with the ssRNA probes at high stringency revealed specific reactions with a high signal-to-noise ratio. The differential hybridization reactions seen with probes of positive and negative sense (compared with HAV genomic RNA) were used to detect HAV in clinical and field samples. A positive/negative ratio was introduced as an indicator that permitted a semiquantitative expression of a positive HAV reaction. Good agreement of this indicator was observed with normal stool samples and with HAV-seeded samples. By using this system, HAV was detected in estuarine and freshwater samples collected from a sewage-polluted bayou in Houston and a saltwater tributary of Galveston Bay. ProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform? Lipari, M.1951"A milk-borne poliomyelitis episode362-369NY State J. Med.51 not availableProCite Record Number: 360Journal Short Form workform?Berger, R. M. Just1992LVaccination against hepatitis A: control 3 years after the first vaccination295Vaccine104 not availableProCite Record Number: 370Journal Short Form workform?RJothikumar, N. K. Aparna S. Kamatchiammal R. Paulmurugan S. Saravanadevi P. khanna1993_Detection of hepatitis E virus in raw and treated wastewater with the polymerase chain reaction 2558-2562&Applied and Environmental Microbiology598The main objective of this study was to determine the applicability of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detection of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in sewage treatment plants and establishment of the prevalence of hepatitis viral diseases in a population. Epidemics of HEV infection because of inadequate public sanitation have been reported in several developing countries. A procedure for concentration of HEV in sewage samples through adsorption to membrane filters, elution with urea-arginine phosphate buffer, and subsequent reconcentration with magnesium chloride enabled us to concentrate HEV to volumes in the microliter range. HEV-specific cDNA was prepared by reverse transcription of the total RNA extracted from samples. Specific DNA amplification by PCR in combination with slot blot hybridization was used to demonstrate the presence of HEV in sewage samples from the inlets and outlets of three sewage treatment plants. The assay was specific for HEV, and a 240-bp amplified product was visualized by ethidium bromide fluorescence. Sewage samples adjusted to pH 5.0 for adsorption of viruses to membrane filters were PCR positive, while samples adjusted to pH 3.5 were PCR negative. ProCite Record Number: 370Journal Short Form workform(?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy19679Viral pollution and selfcleansing mechanism of hard clams419-438*Transmission of viruses by the water route Berg, G. Ed.New York"Interscience (John Wiley and Sons)ProCite Record Number: 370Book Chapter workform?%Keller, G. H. D. P. Huang M. M. Manak1991Detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA by polymerase chain reaction amplification and capture hybridization in microtiter wells638-641 Journal of Clinical Microbiology293We developed an improved microtiter-based assay for the detection of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified DNA sequences. The synthetic DNA sequences used to prime the PCR were labeled with biotin at their 5' ends so that the specific PCR product was labeled with biotin. Following amplification, an aliquot of the PCR product was denatured and hybridized to a capture DNA sequence immobilized in a microtiter well. The capture sequence was complementary to a portion of the sequence between the primers, so that only extended primers were captured. The captured PCR product was detected colorimetrically by using a streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate and tetramethylbenzidine substrate. ProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1971 Infectious hepatitis - Tennessee357$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2039ProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy1966;Viral pollution of shellfish. I. Some basic facts of uptake481-487@Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine123 not availableProCite Record Number: 380Journal Short Form workform? Lemon, S. M.1992rHepatitis A virus: current concepts of the molecular virology, immunobiology and approaches to vaccine development73-87Review in Medical Virology22ProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?,Langer, B. C. A. A. Lövestad G. G. Frösner1996PHigh immunogenicity and good tolerability of a new hepatitis A vaccine candidate 1089-1091Vaccine14128Hepatitis A virus; vaccine; immunogenicity; tolerabilityImmunogenicity and tolerability of a new formalin-inactivated, alum-adjuvanted whole virus vaccine against hepatitis A (VAQTA, MSD, West Point, USA) were evaluated by immunizing 52 healthy, anti-HAV negative volunteers with a 1 ml dose. A booster dose was given 6 months later. In these young adult vaccinees [27 males and 25 females, 19-34 (mean 26) years of age] VAQTA proved to be well tolerated and highly immunogenic. Two weeks after administration of one vaccine dose, all but one of the recipients (98%) had anti-HAV concentrations above the presumed minimum protective level of 10 IU l-1 with a geometric mean concentration (GMC) of 165 IU l-1. After 4 weeks, a 100% seroconversion rate could be demonstrated with a fourfold increase of the GMC to 728 IU l-1. Six months after vaccination, all but one of the 50 volunteers coming back for booster (98%) showed anti-HAV levels within the protective range. The antibody concentrations had decreased in the majority of vaccinees to a GMC of 362 IU l-1. The booster dose given at that time was shown to be very effective, leading to a pronounced rise of anti-HAV levels in all recipients with a 17-fold increase of the GMC to 6040 IU l-1. Six months after the booster, all vaccinees were still seropositive with a GMC of 3444 IU l-1. Higher antibody levels were found in females, the difference being significant 4 weeks and 6 months after vaccination and 4 weeks after booster. No serious local or systemic adverse reactions were observed. ProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972(Foodborne outbreaks: annual summary 197125-26'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workform?*Liu, O. C. H. R. Seraichekas, B. L. Murphy1967(Viral depuration of the northern quahaug307-315Applied Microbiology15 not availableProCite Record Number: 390Journal Short Form workformC?<Emerson, S. U. Y. K. Huang, C. McRill M. lewis R. H. Purcell1992pMutations in both the 2B and 2C genes of hepatitis A virus are involved in adaptations to growth in cell culture650-654Journal of Virology662Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis of an infectious cDNA clone of wild-type hepatitis A virus was performed to determine which mutations acquired in the nonstructural 2B and 2C genes during adaptation to growth in cell culture were effective in enhancing virus growth in vitro. Results of transfection assays demonstrated that one mutation in the 2B gene and two mutations in the 2C gene were responsible for an increased efficiency in growth, but growth enhancement required the participation of at least two of the three mutations. ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?(Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn R. H. Marchwicki1983MRadioimmunofocus assay for quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures834-839 Journal of Clinical Microbiology175A new method is described for the quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures, based on the immune autoradiographic detection of foci of infected cells (radioimmunofoci) developing beneath an agarose overlay 14 days after the inoculation of petri dish cultures of continuous African green monkey kidney cells (BS-C-1). The number of foci developing in each culture was linearly related to the dose of hepatitis A virus (either HM-175 or PA-21 strain) inoculated. Focus development was prevented by prior incubation of virus with specific antisera, and the specificity of the radiolabeled antibody reaction was confirmed in competitive blocking experiments. This new assay method retains many of the advantages of conventional plaque assays for virus. Compared with existing end-dilution methods for the quantitation of hepatitis A virus, the radioimmunofocus assay offers greatly improved accuracy and comparable sensitivity, yet is relatively rapid and highly conservative of reagents. ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Feingold, A. O.1973#Hepatitis from eating steamed clams526-527+Journal of the American Medical Association225ProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Mathews, F. P.1949QPoliomeylitis epidemic, possibly milk-borne, in a naval station, Portland, Oregon1-7 Am. J. Hyg.491 not availableProCite Record Number: 400Journal Short Form workform?Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn19839Serum neutralizing antibody response to hepatitis A virus 1033-1039Journal of Infectious Diseases1486Serum neutralizing antibody to hepatitis A virus (HAV) was measured in experimentally infected primates and naturally infected humans by means of an assay based on the autoradiographic detection of viral replication foci in vitro. Infection of primates with either PA-33 or HM-175 strains of HAV elicited antibody capable of neutralizing either strain. Sequential testing of two monkeys showed that neutralizing antibody correlated closely with antibody detected by immunoassay, developed before liver enzyme elevations, and was associated with a substantial reduction in fecal shedding of viral antigen. In tests performed on human subjects involved in an outbreak of hepatitis A, neutralizing antibody was present three to five days before the onset of symptoms and was found in both 19S and 7S immunoglobulin fractions. Immunity to HAV is probably due primarily to neutralizing antibody, and the ability to quantitate this antibody will be helpful in the evaluation of new HAV vaccines. ProCite Record Number: 410Journal Short Form workform?Metcalf, T. G. W. C. Stiles1965HThe accumulation of enteric viruses by the oyster, Crassostrea virginica68-76Journal of Infectious Diseases115 not availableProCite Record Number: 410Journal Short Form workform?hHyams, K. C. M. C. McCarthy M. Kaur M. A. Purdy D. W. Bradley M. M. Mansour S. Gray D. M. Watts M. Carl 1992=Acute sporadic hepatitis E in children living in Cairo, Egypt274-277Journal of Medical Virology 374Seventy-three pediatric patients with acute hepatitis and 19 control patients without liver disease living in Cairo, Egypt, were evaluated with a newly developed Western blot assay for IgM antibody to hepatitis E virus (IgM anti-HEV). The mean age of acute hepatitis patients was 6.4 years (range, 1-13 years); 56% were male. Among the 73 acute cases, hepatitis A was diagnosed in 30 (41%), possible acute hepatitis B in three (4%), hepatitis E in nine (12%), and by exclusion, non-A, non-B hepatitis in 29 (40%). Two additional acute cases were positive for both IgM anti-HAV and IgM anti-HEV. None of the 19 control subjects had IgM anti-HEV. Parenteral risk factors were associated with cases of non-A, non-B hepatitis but were not associated with acute hepatitis E. Contact with a family member with jaundice was associated with acute hepatitis A. In contrast to prior epidemics of enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis, HEV was found to be a common cause of acute hepatitis in a pediatric population. This study provides additional evidence that HEV may be a frequent cause of acute sporadic hepatitis among children living in some developing countries. ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?'Lemon, S. M. R. W. Jansen J. E. Newbold1985Infectious hepatitis A virus particles produced in cell culture consist of three distinct types with different buoyant densities in CsCl78-85Journal of Virology541Although hepatitis A virus (HAV) released by infected BS-C-1 cells banded predominantly at 1.325 g/cm3 (major component) in CsCl, smaller proportions of infectious virions banded at 1.42 g/cm3 (dense HAV particles) and at 1.27 g/cm3 (previously unrecognized light HAV particles). cDNA-RNA hybridization confirmed the banding of viral RNA at each density, and immune electron microscopy demonstrated apparently complete viral particles in each peak fraction. The ratio of the infectivity (radioimmunofocus assay) titer to the antigen (radioimmunoassay) titer of the major component was approximately 15-fold greater than that of dense HAV particles and 4-fold that of light HAV particles. After extraction with chloroform, the buoyant density of light and major component HAV particles remained unchanged, indicating that the lower density of the light particles was not due to association with lipids. Light particles also banded at a lower density (1.21 g/cm3) in metrizamide than did the major component (1.31 g/cm3). Dense HAV particles, detected by subsequent centrifugation in CsCl, were indistinguishable from the major component when first banded in metrizamide (1.31 g/cm3). However, dense HAV particles recovered from CsCl subsequently banded at 1.37 g/cm3 in metrizamide. Electrophoresis of virion RNA under denaturing conditions demonstrated that dense, major-component, and light HAV particles all contained RNA of similar length. Thus, infectious HAV particles released by BS-C-1 cells in vitro consist of three distinct types which band at substantially different densities in CsC1, suggesting different capsid structures with varied permeability to cesium or different degrees of hydration. ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform??Dienstag, J. L. I. D. Gust C. R. Lucas D. C. Wong R. H. Purcell1976BMussel-associated viral hepatitis type A: serological confirmation561-564 The Lancet1ProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?%Metcalf, T. G. D. Eckerson E. Moulton1980KA method for recovery of viruses from oysters and hard and soft shell clams89-90Journal of Food Protection43 not availableProCite Record Number: 420Journal Short Form workform?$Zaaiger, H. L. M. F. Yin P. N. Lelie19920Seroprevalence of hepatitis E in the Netherlands681Lancet3408822(Hepatitis E, Netherlands, seroprevalenceProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?,Lednicky, J. A. S. Jafar C. Wong J. S. Butel1997High-fidelity PCR amplification of infectious copies of the complete simian virus 40 genome from plasmids and virus-infected cell lysates189-195Gene1842wLong-PCR; molecular clone; SV40 large tumor antigen; viral enhancer; viral plaque; viral regulatory region; viral titersWe describe here a long-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method that can be used to amplify complete simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA with high fidelity, and we show that authentic, viable virus can be produced from molecular clones of the PCR-amplified viral DNAs. A commercial long-PCR kit that employed a combination of Taq and GB-D polymerases was used, together with a pair of overlapping primers that recognized a unique EcoRI site in the SV40 genome. Efficient amplification required linearization of the circular SV40 genomic DNAs with EcoRI. Entire SV40 genomes were successfully PCR-amplified from an SV40 plasmid and from two different SV40-infected cell lysates and were cloned into pUC-19. Three separate segments of the cloned viral genomes were DNA sequenced, and no nucleotide changes relative to the parental virus were detected, suggesting that the viral DNAs had been amplified with high fidelity. Each PCR clone was infectious, and no differences were detected in the growth characteristics of viruses derived from these clones as compared to the original viral strain. The procedure we utilized shortens and simplifies the molecular cloning of small double-stranded DNA viruses and will be useful for viral diagnostic tests and for recovery of virus from clinical samples. The results of these experiments have broad implications, as the methodology is applicable to many systems. ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?Gaub, J. L. Ranek19739Epidemic of hepatitis after ingestion of imported oysters345Ugescrift for laeger135ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workform?CMinor, T. E. C. I. Allen A. A. Tsiatis D. B. Nelson D. J. D'Alessio1981PHuman infective dose determinations for oral polovirus type 1 vaccine in infants388-389 Journal of Clinical Microbiology132The 50, 10, and 1% human infective doses of poliovirus type 1 vaccine administered orally to 32 infants were estimated to be 72, 39, and 20 tissue culture infective doses, respectively. ProCite Record Number: 430Journal Short Form workforme?BAye, T. T. T. Uchida, X. Ma F. Lida T. Shikata H. Zhuang K. M. Win1992^Sequence comparison of th capsid region of hepatitis E viruses isolated from Myanmar and China615-621Microbiology and Immunology366>Hepatitis E viruses (HEVs) were isolated during epidemics, one from Myanmar (formerly called Burma) and one from China and were partially sequenced. Another HEV Myanmar strain from sporadic hepatitis was previously sequenced by us. A cDNA sequence comparison was performed among them in the 3'-terminal region, approximately 750-base long. This region contained at least two immunological epitopes and was considered to correspond to the structural protein. The nucleotide sequence identity was 97.2% between the two Myanmar strains and 93.3 and 92.5% between the two Myanmar and the China strain. The deduced amino acid sequence identity ranged from 98.4 to 100.0% among the three strains. Thus this segment was well conserved on the amino acid level among the different strains isolated from these two Asian countries, although the China strain diverged more from the Myanmar strains on the nucleotide sequence level. This data may provide important information for the development of a vaccine and for identification of the virological link between different geographical locations. ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?CLocarnini, S. A. A. G. Coulepis A. M. Stratton J. Kaldor I. D. Gust1979dSolid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M459-465 Journal of Clinical Microbiology94}A solid-phase enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was developed for the detection of immunoglobulin M antibody to hepatitis A virus. The system was capable of detecting hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M in a single dilution of serum and appears to be a reliable and rapid means of establishing a diagnosis of hepatitis A infection. Specific immunoglobulin M was only detected in patients with serologically confirmed hepatitis A and not in patients with other forms of hepatitis, chronic liver disease, or autoimmune disease. In patients with hepatitis A, specific immunoglobulin M was usually detectable for 6 weeks after the onset of dark urine, and the longest period for which it was present in any patient was 115 days. This enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is rapid, simple to perform, and does not require complicated equipment. Provided adequate supplies of purified reagents can be obtained, this enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay procedure is likely to simplify hepatitis A serology, because the same antibody-coated plates can be utilized to detect hepatitis A virus, anti-hepatitis A virus, and hepatitis A-specific immunoglobulin M. ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?Guidon, L. C. A. Pierach19731Infectious hepatitis after ingestion of raw clams15-19Minnesota Medicine56ProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform? Northolt, M. D. J. G. Kapsenberg1976/Onderzoek naar enterovirussen in vlees en ghakt57-76NRapport nr. Zoon Rijks Instuut voor de Volksqezondheld, Bilthoven, NetherlandsProCite Record Number: 440Journal Short Form workform?fTsarev, S. A. S. U. Emerson G. R. Reyes T. S. Tsareva L. J. Legters I. A. Malik M. Iqbal R. H. Purcell1992;Characterization of a prototype strain of hepatitis E virus559-563Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA892_A strain of hepatitis E virus (SAR-55) implicated in an epidemic of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis, now called hepatitis E, was characterized extensively. Six cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were infected with a strain of hepatitis E virus from Pakistan. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction was used to determine the pattern of virus shedding in feces, bile, and serum relative to hepatitis and induction of specific antibodies. Virtually the entire genome of SAR-55 (7195 nucleotides) was sequenced. Comparison of the sequence of SAR-55 with that of a Burmese strain revealed a high level of homology except for one region encoding 100 amino acids of a putative nonstructural polyprotein. Identification of this region as hypervariable was obtained by partial sequencing of a third isolate of hepatitis E virus from Kirgizia.ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?$Lodmell, D. L. N. B. Ray L. C. Ewalt1998rGene gun particle-mediated vaccination with plasmid DNA confers protective immunity against rabies virus infection115-118Vaccine162-3DNA rabies vaccine; gene gunAccell gene gun particle-mediated immunization with DNA encoding the glycoprotein gene of the challenge virus standard strain of rabies virus was evaluated for its ability to elicit protective levels of serum anti-rabies virus neutralizing antibody. Strong primary and booster neutralizing antibody responses were detected in mice following immunization with 2 micrograms of DNA coated on 2.6-micron gold beads. Protective levels of antibody persisted for over 300 days. Mice challenged intraplantarly 315 days post-primary immunization (225 days post-booster vaccination) survived lethal rabies virus challenge. Our data demonstrate a potentially significant role for gene gun-based delivery of DNA in the field of rabies virus vaccination. ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973,Common source outbreak of hepatitis A - Ohio86$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2210ProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform?:Piszczek, E. A. H. J. Shaughnessy J. Zichis S. O. Levinson1941hAcute anterior poliomyelitis: study of an outbreak in West Suburban Cook County, III. Preliminary report 1962-1965JAMA117 not availableProCite Record Number: 450Journal Short Form workform 9RH and 5 degrees C to about 2 h at the ultrahigh RH and 35 degrees C. In parallel tests with fecally suspended Sabin poliovirus (PV) type 1 at the low and ultrahigh RH, all PV activity was lost within 4 h at the low RH whereas at the ultrahigh RH it remained detectable up to 12 h. HAV could therefore survive much better than PV on nonporous environmental surfaces. Moreover, the ability of HAV to survive better at low levels of RH is in direct contrast to the behavior of other enteroviruses. These findings should help in understanding the genesis of HAV outbreaks more clearly and in designing better measures for their control and prevention.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1649579Mbithi, J N Springthorpe, V S Sattar, S A Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1991 May;57(5):1394-9.0099-2240 (Print)1829601649579WDepartment of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.eng V5hreefold increase in the ?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19797Foodborne and waterborne outbreaks: annual summary 197728&76'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1976?Foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks: annual summary 197533&62'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform?Roos, B.1956#Hepatitepidemi, spridd genom ostron989-1003Svenska Lakartidningen53 not availableProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workformF?World Health Organization1992Fifth Report. 1985-1989.ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in EuropeProCite Record Number: 460Journal Short Form workform (42) Institute of Veterinary Medicine- Robert von Ostertag- Institute (FAO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training in Food Hygiene and Zoonoses), Berlin?!Ma, J. F. J. Naranjo C. P. Gerba 1994EEvaluation of MK filters for recovery of enteroviruses from tap water 1974-1977&Applied and Environmental Microbiology606The MK filter is an electropositively charged filter that can be used to concentrate enteroviruses from large volumes (400 to 1,000 liters) of water. This filter is less expensive than the commonly used 1MDS electropositive filter. In this study, we compared the recovery of poliovirus 1 (PV1) and that of coxsackievirus B3 (CB3) from 378 liters of tap water, using both the MK and the 1MDS filters. Viruses were eluted from the filters with 3% beef extract buffered with 0.05 M glycine (pH 9.5) and reconcentrated via organic flocculation. At high virus inputs (approximately 10(6) PFU), the overall recovery (after elution and reconcentration) of PV1 and CB3 from tap water with the MK filter was less than that achieved with the 1MDS filter (P < 0.05). The recoveries of PV1 from tap water with the MK and 1MDS filters were 73.2% +/- 26% (n = 5 trials) and 90.2% +/- 5.9% (n = 5 trials), respectively. The recoveries of CB3 from tap water with the MK and 1MDS filters were 32.8% +/- 34.5% (n = 4 trials) and 95.8% +/- 12.0% (n = 4 trials), respectively. This study indicated that the MK filter consistently provided lower recovery, with wider variability, of PV1 and CB3 from tap water than the 1MDS filter. ProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workform? ,Mackowiak, P. A. C. T. Caraway B. L. Portnoy1976BOyster-associated hepatitis: lessons from the Louisiana experience181-191 American Journal of Epidemiology103ProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workformC? 2Schmidt, N. J. H. H. Ho J. L. Riggs E. H. Lennette1978rComparative sensitivity of various cell culture systems for isolation of viruses from wastewater and fecal samples480-486&Applied and Environmental Microbiology363 not availableProCite Record Number: 470Journal Short Form workformy? Ticehurst, J. L. L. Rhodes, Jr. K. Krawcznski L. V. Asher W. F. Engler T. L. Mensing J. D. Caudill M. H. Sjogren C. H. Jr. Hoke J. W. LeDuc, et al1992|Infection of owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) and cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) with hepatitis E virus from Mexico835-845Journal of Infectious Diseases1655Owl and cynomolgus monkeys were inoculated with hepatitis E virus (HEV) to compare disease models and produce antibody and virus. By immune electron microscopy (IEM), all six owl monkeys were shown to have serologic responses manifested by unusually high levels of anti-HEV at 6 months, but only three developed hepatitis. Virus-related antigen in liver (HEV Ag) was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy of biopsies from two of four owl monkeys; one with HEV Ag also had HEV in acute-phase bile (detected by IEM) and feces (detected by infecting another owl monkey). In contrast, cynomolgus monkeys propagated HEV to higher levels and all five had hepatitis. Moderate-to-high levels of HEV Ag correlated with detectable HEV in bile for both species. Thus, the value of using HEV-infected cynomolgus was confirmed. Owl monkeys were shown to be HEV-susceptible and sources of high-level anti-HEV; Sustained anti-HEV in these monkeys may also be useful for understanding immune responses. ProCite Record Number: 480Journal Short Form workformI? LMakimura, M. S. Miyake N. Akino K. Takamori Y. Matsuura T. Miyamura I. Saito1996mInduction of antibodies against structural proteins of hepatitis C virus in mice using recombinant adenovirus28-34Vaccine141>Recombinant adenovirus; hepatitis C virus; structural proteinsReplication-deficient recombinant adenoviruses expressing structural proteins of hepatitis C virus (HCV) were constructed. Each recombinant lacks adenoviral E1A and E3 genes and bears expression units for HCV structural proteins. The expression units contain HCV cDNAs coding for either the protein or core, one of two envelopes (E1 and E2) or all of these structural proteins (core, E1 and E2) under the control of the SR alpha promoter. In HeLa or HepG2 cells, the recombinants can express efficiently HCV genes after infection without replication of the recombinants. We detected 22-kDa core, 35-kDa E1 and 58-kDa E2 proteins of HCV in these cells. The recombinant expressing all three HCV structural proteins was inoculated into mice. Antibodies to each of the three HCV proteins were detected in all of the ten mice tested. The results indicate that the recombinant adenoviruses efficiently express HCV genes and induce specific antibody against the expressed HCV proteins in animals. ProCite Record Number: 480Journal Short Form workform%SU7t7Sobsey, M. D. Jones, B. L.1979WConcentration of poliovirus from tap water using positively charged microporous filters588-95Appl Environ Microbiol373~Adsorption Hydrogen-Ion Concentration *Micropore Filters Poliovirus/*isolation & purification *Water Microbiology Water SupplyMarMicroporous filters that are more electropositive than the negatively charged filters currently used for virus concentrations from water by filter adsorption-elution methods were evaluated for poliovirus recovery from tap water. Zeta Plus filters composed of diatomaceous earth-cellulose-"charge-modified" resin mixtures and having a net positive charge of up to pH 5 to 6 efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water at ambient pH levels 7.0 to 7.5 without added multivalent cation salts. The adsorbed virus were eluted with glycine-NaOH, pH 9.5 to 11.5. Electropositive asbestos-cellulose filters efficiently adsorbed poliovirus from tap water without added multivalent cation salts between pH 3.5 and 9.0, and the absorbed viruses could be eluted with 3% beef extract, pH 9, but not with pH 9.5 to 11.5 glycine-NaOH. Under water quality conditions in which poliovirus recoveries from large volumes of water were less than 5% with conventional negatively charged filters and standard methods, recoveries with Zeta Plus filters averaged 64 an?;Huang, R. T. D. R. Li J. Wei X. R. Huang X. T. Yuan X. Tian1992DIsolation and identification of hepatitis E virus in Xinjiang, China 1143-1148Journal of General Virology735This paper describes isolation and identification of a virus (termed strain 87A) which has the cytopathic effect and haemagglutination properties of hepatitis E virus (HEV). This virus was isolated by tissue culture from the faeces of a patient with acute non-A, non-B enteric hepatitis in Xinjiang, China. The isolated virus was neutralized by acute phase sera obtained from other patients with acute non-A, non-B enteric hepatitis. The virus particles also could be specifically aggregated with acute phase sera from patients with known HEV hepatitis in China, Burma, India and the U.S.S.R., and with acute and convalescent sera from an HEV-infected chimpanzee. Crystalline arrangements of virus particles in the cytoplasm were observed by electron microscopy in ultrathin sections of infected cells. The sedimentation coefficient of the strain 87A virus particles in sucrose gradients was 176S. Purified virus particles revealed a protein band of about 76K on SDS-PAGE and Western blotting. The evidence indicates that the strain 87A virus is an HEV. Our ability to propagate HEV in cell culture should facilitate research on this hepatotropic virus. ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform? Mandel, B.1962[The use of sodium dodecyl sulfate in studies on the interodisa of poliovirus and HeLa cells288-294Virology17 Poliovirus (type 1) is inactivated by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) only at pH below 4.7. When virus adsorbs to cells at 2º, only about 2% of the cell-associated virus can be recovered by freezing and thawing the infected cells. However, at least 50% is recovered by lysing the cells with SDS. If the debris derived from the freeze-thaw-disrupted cells is treated with SDS, the titer of infectious virus increases to the same level obtained by direct SDS treatment. At 37º the amount of cell-associated virus that can be recovered with SDS decreases to about 30% of the total in 2-3 hours. Variations in multiplicity of infection affect neither the amount of virus that becomes irrecoverable (possible because of true eclipsing) nor the earlies time at which newly synthesized virus can be detected.ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1982?Enteric illness associated with raw clam consumption - New York449-451$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report3133ProCite Record Number: 490Journal Short Form workform ? Sobsey, M.D.1981TEvaluating adsorbent filter performance for enteric virus concetrations in tap water542-548J. Am. Water Works Assoc.73 vate all of the virus present. These results suggest that not only fresh but also refrigerated and cooked oysters can serve as vectors for the dissemination of virus disease if the shellfish are harvested from a polluted area.dhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=4318574mDiGirolamo, R Liston, J Matches, J R United states Applied microbiology Appl Microbiol. 1970 Jul;20(1):58-63.0003-6919 (Print)3768664318574eng U&4ABO Blood-Group System/*physiology Animals Blood Group Antigens Food Contamination/*analysis Gastroenteritis/epidemiology/etiology/virology Gastrointestinal Tract/*virology Glycogen/metabolism Humans Norovirus/metabolism/*physiology Ostreidae/*virology Receptors, Virus/physiology Seasons Shellfish/*virologyAugNoroviruses (NORs) are the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks. Outbreaks are often associated with the consumption of contaminated oysters and generally occur between the months of November and March, when oysters produce the highest levels of glycogen. Oyster glycogen has been proposed as playing a role in NOR accumulation. Recent research indicates that histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) function as viral receptors on human gastrointestinal cells. In this study, oyster glycogen was tested to determine whether it contains HBGA-like molecules and whether it plays a role in NOR binding. The correlation between the amount of HBGA expression ? Bricout, F.1992Viral diarrhorea309-314Presse Medicalf217ReviewIt is now well known that several viruses are responsible for acute diarrhoea or gastroenteritis in both children and adults. These viruses are difficult to identify since most of them cannot be isolated by stool cultures on cells. The reality of proven reinfection by some of these organisms is not always clearly understood, even though the existence of several serotypes in the same group (notably rotavirus) can be blamed, and this explains why vaccines are difficult to develop. ProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1976@Foodborne and waterborne diseases outbreaks: annual summary 197438-39'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?-Sullivan, R. A. C. Fassolitis R. B. Read Jr. 1970-Method for isolating viruses from ground beef624-626Journal of Food Science35 not availableProCite Record Number: 500Journal Short Form workform?Moore, N. J. A. B. Margolin1993vEvaluation of radioactive and nonradioactive gene probes and cell culture for detection of poliovirus in water samples 3145-3146&Applied and Environmental Microbiology599Five nonradioactive probe assays were evaluated by using chemiluminescent and colormetric signals, along with two isotopic assays and cell culture, for the detection of poliovirus in concentrated water samples. In environmental samples, a 100% correlation existed between digoxigenin and single-stranded [32P]RNA probes. All probe assays detected more positive samples than the cell culture did. ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare19793Foodborne disease surveillance: annual summary 197826'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform ?,Taylor, J. W. G. W. Gary Jr. H. B. Greenberg1981HNorwalk-related viral gastroenteritis due to contaminated drinking water584-592 American Journal of Epidemiology1144 An explosive outbreak of gastrointestinal illness clinically compatible with infection by an agent serologically related to Norwalk virus agent occurred in an elementary school in May 1978. Seroconversion by radioimmunoassay to the Norwalk antigen was noted in two of three ill persons, but no viral particles were identified in stool. Illness developed in 72% of students and teachers at the school, and 32% of household contacts of these ill persons. Of household contacts of persons exposed at school but not clinically ill, 11% developed illness. This value, however, was not statistically different from the level of illness observed concurrently in household contacts of students at an unaffected school nearby. Epidemiologic investigation implicated water as the mode of transmission. Average consumption of one or more glasses per day was strongly associated with illness (p less than 0.00000001). Among soccer team members with limited school contact, water consumption at the school was associated with a 14-fold greater risk of illness (p less than 0.000001). Drinking water was most likely contaminated by back-siphonage through a cross-connection between the school's well and septic tank. This contamination occurred approximately 24 to 36 hours before the outbreak developed. ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?Pringle, C. R.19922Committee pursues medley of virus taxonomic issues475-476&American Society for Microbiology News58ProCite Record Number: 510Journal Short Form workform?Nadala, E. C. B. Jr. P. C. Loh1992gProduction of high efficiency of plating hepatitis A virus in primary African green monkey kidney cells400-403>Prococcedings of the Society Experimental Biology and Medicine1994High-titered hepatitis A virus, strain HM-175, was produced in primary African green monkey kidney cells (5.5 x 10(10) tissue culture ID50/850 cm2 roller bottle). The virus preparation had an efficiency of plating of 15 particles per infectious unit. Single-cycle growth kinetics of the adapted virus indicated that after an eclipse period of 2 days, maximal yields were attained 6 days after infection. ProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform?1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979BFoodborne and waterborne disease surveillance: annual summary 197728&76'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform0?MTierney, J. T. A. Fassolitis D. Van Donsel V. C. Rao R. Sullivan E. P. Larkin1980TGlass wool-hydroextraction method for recovery of human enteroviruses from shellfish102-104Journal of Food Protection43 not availableProCite Record Number: 520Journal Short Form workform?*Jiang, X. M. Wang D. Y. Graham M. K. Estes1992OExpression, self-assembly, and antigenicity of the Norwalk virus capsid protein 6527-6532Journal of Virology 6611Norwalk virus capsid protein was produced by expression of the second and third open reading frames of the Norwalk virus genome, using a cell-free translation system and baculovirus recombinants. Analysis of the expressed products showed that the second open reading frame encodes a protein with an apparent molecular weight of 58,000 (58K protein) and that this protein self-assembles to form empty viruslike particles similar to native capsids in size and appearance. The antigenicity of these particles was demonstrated by immunoprecipitation and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of paired serum samples from volunteers who developed illness following Norwalk virus challenge. These particles also induced high levels of Norwalk virus-specific serum antibody in laboratory animals following parenteral inoculation. A minor 34K protein was also found in infected insect cells. Amino acid sequence analysis of the N terminus of the 34K protein indicated that the 34K protein was a cleavage product of the 58K protein. The availability of large amounts of recombinant Norwalk virus particles will allow the development of rapid, sensitive, and reliable tests for the diagnosis of Norwalk virus infection as well as the implementation of structural studies. ProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?!)Poovorawan, Y. A. Theamboonlers A. Safary1996WSingle-dose hepatitis A vaccination: comparison of different dose levels in adolescents 1092-1094Vaccine1412*Hepatitis A; adolescents; two dose levelsThe effect of two dose levels of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine was investigated for immunogenicity and reactogenicity in an open study in adolescents. The subjects were randomized into two groups and to receive a priming dose of 720 EL. U or 1440 EL. U of hepatitis A antigen, respectively. A booster of the same dose level was given at month 6. In group 1, receiving 720 EL. U, the seroconversion rates at 15 days and 1 month were 92% and 99%. The corresponding rates for group 2, receiving 1440 EL. U, were 98% and 100%. Higher geometric mean titres of antibody to hepatitis A virus were noted at 1, 6 and 7 months in the group receiving 1440 EL. U. The vaccine was well tolerated in both groups. The most frequent side effect was transient soreness at the site of inoculation. No serious adverse reactions were observed. The study demonstrated that inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is safe and immunogenic at a dose level of 720 EL. U or 1440 EL. U in adolescents. ProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?"1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1981CFoodborne disease surveillance: annual summary 1978 (revised issue)27'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform#?#1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963?Foodborne epidemic in a school for American military dependents19-20@Hepatitis Survellience, Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, GA15 not availableProCite Record Number: 530Journal Short Form workform?$BCoulson, B. S. K. Grimwood, I. L. Hudson G. L. Barnes R. F. Bishop1992YRole of coprantibody in clinical protection of children during reinfection with rotavirus 1678-1684!Journal of Clinical Microbiology 307Rotavirus is the major cause of severe, dehydrating infantile gastroenteritis. Infection is limited to the gut, but the relative roles of serum and secretory copro-immunoglobulin A (IgA) in protection are unclear. Specific copro-IgA is predictive of duodenal antirotaviral IgA and correlates with virus-neutralizing coproantibody. Copro-IgA conversion is a more sensitive marker of rotavirus reinfection than seroconversion. We measured rotavirus reinfections by copro-IgA conversion prospectively in 35 children recruited at a time of severe rotavirus illness. The children were followed up longitudinally for 14 to 31 months to determine whether high coproantibody levels correlated with clinical protection against rotavirus disease. Ninety-four percent of the children experienced reinfection, and 38% developed persistent elevations in specific copro-IgA termed plateaus. Plateau children had a higher mean annual rate of rotavirus infection and a lower ratio of symptomatic to total number of rotavirus reinfections than did nonplateau children. The annual rates of rotavirus infection and disease were significantly higher outside the plateau than inside it in children experiencing antirotavirus copro-IgA plateaus. Frequent rotavirus infection of children appears to stimulate production of a specific copro-IgA plateau which correlates with protection against an excess of infection and symptomatic disease. ProCite Record Number: 540Journal Short Form workform?%"Prévot, J. S. Dubrou J. Maréchal1993rDetection of human hepatitis a virus in environmental water by an antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction method227-233Water Science and Technology273-4sHepatitis A virus; immuno-affinity capture; hemi-nested enzymatic amplification; hybridization; environmental watereTo detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) in environmental water samples, sensitive and specific methods are needed. An hemi-nested enzymatic amplification procedure was developed. When it was associated with an immunocaputure (IC) step, specificity and sensitivity were increased. The presence of a specific DNA fragment of 318 bp was detected by the analysis of the electrophoresis of the PCR products and confirmed on the autoradiogram of the Southern blot of the gel, using a labeled oligoprobe PA1 selected in a very highly conserved region of the genome coding for the capsid protein VP1. The IC/PCR detected less than one infectious unit of virus in 75 µl sample. Eleven Seine River samples and two drinking water specimens were monitored by this assay. The IC/PCR brings a significant contribution for increasing our knowledge of the incidence of HAV on public health.ProCite Record Number: 540Journal Short Form workformM?'/Bass, D. M. M. Baylor R. Broome H. B. Greenberg1992WMolecular basis of age-dependent gastric inactivation of rhesus rotavirus in the mouse 1741-1745!Journal of Clinical Investigation8968Rotavirus requires specific proteolytic activation by trypsin for efficient replication in tissue culture. To observe the nature of intestinal proteolytic activation of rotavirus in vivo, metabolically labeled rhesus rotavirus (RRV) grown in the presence of trypsin inhibitors was administered to adult and 10-d-old suckling mice by gavage. In the adult stomach, vp4 was cleaved in a manner distinct from in vitro trypsin cleavage. In the suckling stomach, RRV vp4 remains largely uncleaved. The alternative cleavage in the adult stomach was associated with a profound decrease in viral infectivity. vp4 from RRV recovered from the suckling small intestinal lumen was cleaved in a pattern similar or identical to in vitro trypsin-activated virus with bands comigrating with vp5* and vp8*. In contrast, vp4 was not observed in any recognizable form in RRV recovered from adult intestines. Comparison of infectivity of virus recovered from suckling and adult intestines revealed a 10,000-fold decrease in titer in the virus recovered from the adult intestine. In vitro digestions of RRV revealed that pepsin digestion can cleave RRV vp4 and markedly enhance acid-induced loss of rotavirus infectivity. Subsequent digestion with chymotrypsin removes most of the pepsin cleavage products of vp4. Virus injected directly into jejunal loops of adult mice and virus administered orally to adult mice pretreated with antiacid drugs retained infectivity. These studies indicate the development of gastric acid and pepsin secretion may be an important host defense factor in rotavirus gastroenteritis. ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workform?(RPurcell, R. H. D. C. Wong Y. Moritsugu J. L. Dienstag J. A. Routenberg J. D. Boggs1976NA microtiter solid-phase radioimmunoassay for hepatitis A antigen and antibody349-356Journal of Immunology1162A microtiter solid phase radioimmunoassy for hepatitis A antigen (HA Ag) and antibody (anti-HA) was developed. The test was more sensitive than immune adherence hemagglutination for detecting HA Ag and almost as sensitive for detecting anti-HA. The specificity and sensitivity of reagents were examined and optimum conditions for the test were determined. Radioimmunoassay, immune adherence hemagglutination, and immune electron microscopy were compared for detecting anti-HA. A serologic response to HA Ag was detected in paired sera from patients with type A hepatitis but not from patients with type B or non-A, non-B hepatitis by all three techniques. ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workformS?)fHooper, R. R. C. W. Juels J. A. Routenberg W. O. Harrison M. E. Kilpatrick S. J. Kendra J. L. Dienstag1977gAn outbreak of type A viral hepatitis at the Naval training center, San Diego: epidemiologic evaluation148-155 American Journal of Epidemiology105ProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workformF?*1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1977AFoodborne and waterbrone diseases outbreaks, annaula summary 1976'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA not availableProCite Record Number: 550Journal Short Form workform?+&Prasad, B. V. D. O. Matson A. W. Smith1994*Three-dimensional structure of calicivirus256-264Journal of Molecular Biology2403The Caliciviridae comprise a new family of single-stranded RNA viruses. While human caliciviruses cause gastroenteritis, the animal caliciviruses cause a wide range of diseases. We have determined the three-dimensional structure of a primate calicivirus using electron cryomicroscopy and computer image-processing techniques. Calicivirus is one of the rare animal viruses whose capsid is made of a single structural protein. The three-dimensional structure of the virus is distinct from that of any other animal virus. However, there are several architectural similarities with plant viruses such as tomato bushy stunt virus and turnip crinkle virus. The calicivirions are 405 A in diameter and exhibit T = 3 icosahedral symmetry. The main features of the three-dimensional structure are the 32 large surface hollows, 50 A deep and 90 A wide, at the icosahedral 5-fold and 3-fold axes, and the 90 distinctive arch-like capsomeres surrounding these hollows at the local and strict 2-fold axes. Each capsomere is a dimer of the capsid protein. Despite noticeable differences, the three quasi-equivalent subunits show common structural features: the upper bilobed domain, the central stem domain, and the lower shell domain. The 2-fold related capsid proteins interact through the bilobed domains to form the top of the arch. The structural differences between the connectors of the stem and the shell domain among the three subunits suggest the presence of a hinge region that may facilitate the capsid protein to adapt to the three quasi-equivalent environments of the T = 3 icosahedral structure. The shell domains of the pentavalent and hexavalent capsid proteins associate to form a continuous shell between the radii of 115 and 150 A. A beta-barrel structure has been suggested for the shell domain. The mass density in the inner shell between the radius of 85 and 110 A may contain a portion of the capsid protein interacting with the RNA. The features between the 45 and 85 A radius are suggestive of ordered RNA. ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformg?,XRajan, E. S. A. Bloushi B. O'Farrell A. Shattock M. G. Courtney A. Safary J. F. Fielding19962Two year old hepatitis A vaccine is as good as new 1439-1441Vaccine1415C2 year old hepatitis A vaccine; seroconversion rate; immunogenicity!This was a randomized, controlled, double-blind study assessing the reactogenicity and immunogenicity of newly produced vs 2 year old hepatitis A vaccine. Overall 215 non-immune volunteers, 18-39 years old were divided into four groups and administered vaccine at months 0, 1 and 6. Three groups each received a different vaccine lot which had been stored at 4 degrees C for 2 years, and one group received recently produced vaccine as control. The mean local and general adverse reaction rates were 59.1% and 17.4%, respectively, and all vaccinees had seroconverted by month 2. There were no significant differences in geometric mean anti-hepatitis A virus (HAV) antibody titres between the four groups. In conclusion 2 year old HAV vaccine is safe and equally immunogenic as newly produced vaccine. ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformG?-kDenes, A. E. J. L. Smith S. H. Hindman M. L. Fleissner R. Judelsohn S. J. Englender H. Tilson J. E. Maynard1977VFoodborne hepatitis A infection: a report of two urban restaurant-associated outbreaks152-162 American Journal of Epidemiology105ProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workformG?.1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979FAseptic meningitis outbreak at a military installation in Pennsylvania11eAseptic Meningitis Survellience, annual summary 1976, HEW-CDC publication number 79-8231, Atlanta, GA not availableProCite Record Number: 560Journal Short Form workform C?//Prasad, B. V. R. Rothnagel X. Jiang M. K. Estes1994JThree-dimensional structure of baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsids 5117-5125Journal of Virology688IThe three-dimensional structure of the baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsid has been determined to a resolution of 2.2 nm using electron cryomicroscopy and computer image processing techniques. The empty capsid, 38.0 nm in diameter, exhibits T = 3 icosahedral symmetry and is composed of 90 dimers of the capsid protein. The striking features of the capsid structure are arch-like capsomeres, at the local and strict 2-fold axes, formed by dimers of the capsid protein and large hollows at the icosahedral 5- and 3-fold axes. Despite its distinctive architecture, the Norwalk virus capsid has several similarities with the structures of T = 3 single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses. The structure of the protein subunit appears to be modular with three distinct domains: the distal globular domain (P2) that appears bilobed, a central stem domain (P1), and a lower shell domain (S). The distal domains of the 2-fold related subunits interact with each other to form the top of the arch. The lower domains of the adjacent subunits associate tightly to form a continuous shell between the radii of 11.0 and 15.0 nm. No significant mass density is observed below the radius of 11.0 mm. It is suspected that the hinge peptide in the adjoining region between the central domain and the shell domain may facilitate the subunits adapting to various quasi-equivalent environments. Architectural similarities between the Norwalk virus capsid and the other ssRNA viruses have suggested a possible domain organization along the primary sequence of the Norwalk virus capsid protein. It is suggested that the N-terminal 250 residues constitute the lower shell domain (S) with an eight-strand beta-barrel structure and that the C-terminal residues beyond 250 constitute the protruding (P1+P2) domains. A lack of an N-terminal basic region and the ability of the Norwalk virus capsid protein to form empty T = 3 shells suggest that the assembly pathway and the RNA packing mechanisms may be different from those proposed for tomato bushy stunt virus and southern bean mosaic virus but similar to that in tymoviruses and comoviruses. ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?0&Rao, V. C. T. G. Metcalf J. L. Melnick1986{Development of a method for concentration of rotavirus and its application to recovery of rotaviruses from estuarine waters484-488&Applied and Environmental Microbiology523As part of our studies on the ecology of human enteric viruses, an improved method for detection of rotaviruses in water was developed, and their presence in Galveston Bay was monitored. Samples (378 liters) of estuarine water adjusted to pH 3.5 and a final AlCl3 molarity of 0.001 were filtered through 25-cm pleated cartridge-type filters (Filterite Corp., Timonium, Md.) of 3.0- and 0.45-micron porosity. Adsorbed virus was eluted with 1 liter of 10% tryptose phosphate broth, pH 9.5. Primary eluates were reconcentrated to a final volume of 10 to 20 ml by a simple and rapid magnetic iron oxide adsorption and elution procedure. Two percent casein at pH 8.5 effectively eluted rotavirus from iron oxide. A total of 21 of 72 samples of water, suspended solids, fluffy sediments, and compact sediments collected in different seasons in Galveston Bay yielded rotaviruses. Recovery of rotaviruses varied from 119 to 1,000 PFU/378 liters of water, 1,200 PFU/1,000 g of compact sediment, 800 to 3,800 PFU/378 liters of fluffy sediment, and 1,800 to 4,980 PFU from suspended solids derived from 378 liters of water based on immunofluorescent foci counts on cover slip cultures of fetal monkey kidney cells. ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?1Iowa State Department of Health1977(Hepatitis outbreak traced to Omaha motel1Iowa Disease Bulletin1ProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform?2%Trask, J. D. J. R. Paul J. L. Melnick1943XThe detction of poliomyelitis virus in flies collected during epidemics of poliomyelitis531-544 Journal of Experimental Medicine77 not availableProCite Record Number: 570Journal Short Form workform ?3Noble, R. T. J. A. Fuhrman1997,Virus decay and its causes in coastal waters77-83&Applied and Environmental Microbiology631|Marine-bacteria, aquatic environments, bacteriophages, seawater, ultraviolet, microscopy, mortality, survival, growth, oceanRecent evidence suggests that viruses play an influential role within the marine microbial food web. To understand this role, it is important to determine rates and mechanisms of virus removal and degradation, We used plaque assays to examine the decay of infectivity in lab-grown viruses seeded into natural seawater. The rates of loss of infectivity of native viruses from Santa Monica Bay and of nonnative viruses from the North Sea in the coastal seawater of Santa Monica Bay were determined. Viruses were seeded into fresh seawater that had been pretreated in various ways: filtration with a 0.2-mu m-pore-size filter to remove organisms, heat to denature enzymes, and dissolved organic matter enrichment to reconstitute enzyme activity, Seawater samples were then incubated in full sunlight, in the dark, or under glass to allow partitioning of causative agents of virus decay, Solar radiation always resulted in increased rates of loss of virus infectivity, Virus isolates which are native to Santa Monica Bay consistently degraded more slowly in full sunlight in untreated seawater (decay ranged from 4.1 to 7.2% h(-1)) than nonnative marine bacteriophages which were isolated from the North Sea (decay ranged from 6.6 to 11.1% h(-1)). All phages demonstrated susceptibility to degradation by heat-labile substances, as heat treatment reduced the decay rates to about 0.5 to 2.0% h(-1) in the dark, Filtration reduced decay rates by various amounts, averaging 20%. Heat-labile, high-molecular-weight dissolved material (>30 kDa, probably enzymes) appeared responsible for about 1/5 of the maximal decay, Solar radiation was responsible for about 1/3 to 2/3 of the maximal decay of nonnative viruses and about 1/4 to 1/3 of that of the native viruses, suggesting evolutionary adaptation to local light levels. Our results suggest that sunlight is an important contributing factor to virus decay but also point to the significance of particles and dissolved substances in seawater.ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Article workform??4DRass, B. C. B. N. Anderson A. G. Coulepis M. P. Chenoweth I. D. Gust1986kMolecular cloning of cDNA from hepatitis A virus strain HM-175 after multiple passages in vivo and in vitro 1741-1744Journal of General Virology67Pt8#HAV; cDNA cloning; multiple passageHepatitis A virus (HAV) strain HM-175 was passaged six times in marmosets, 59 times in cell culture and purified from infected cell culture supernatant fluid. The viral RNA was extracted, copied into cDNA and the cDNA:RNA hybrids were cloned into the PstI site of plasmid pBR322. The cDNA clones were authenticated by hybridization to RNA extracted from HAV-infected cells and clones representing the 3' end of the genome were identified using a previously authenticated cDNA clone. The clones represented all but 29 bases of the HAV genome. They were compared to HAV strain HM-175 cDNA cloned from viral RNA after three passages in marmosets on the basis of restriction endonuclease mapping and DNA sequencing. No differences were found in either the presence or absence of restriction endonuclease sites using 33 different restriction enzymes. Sequencing of cDNA representing bases 29 to 1002 of the HAV genome revealed eight base changes all of which were within the 5' noncoding region. ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform?5?Bostock, A. D. P. Mepham S. Phillips S. Skidmore M. H. Hambling1979@Hepatitis A infection associated with the consumption of mussels171-177Journal of Infection1ProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform?6'Verlinde, J. D. J. Versteeg H. Beeuwkes19588Children infected by pigs with Coxsackie virus pneumonia 1445-1447'Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde102 not availableProCite Record Number: 580Journal Short Form workform ?7GLe Guyader, F. F. H. Neill M. K. Estes S. S. Monroe T. Ando R. L. Atmar1996}Detection and Analysis of a Small Round-Structured Virus Strain in Oysters Implicated in an Outbreak of Acute Gastroenteritis 4268-4272&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6211Outbreaks of shellfish-transmitted viral disease occur periodically, but frequently the causative agent is not identified. In November 1993, during investigation of a multistate outbreak of acute gastroenteritis, incriminated lots of oysters were collected. Oyster tissues (stomachs and digestive diverticula) were processed for virus extraction and nucleic acid purification. Human calicivirus sequences were sought by reverse transcriptase PCR using different primer sets. Amplicons were obtained from 9 of 10 shellfish samples from four different lots when primers specific for the outbreak virus strain were used. The specificity of the amplification was confirmed by hybridization. The amplicons from the nine positive oysters were cloned and sequenced. The sequence of each of the clones was identical to the others but showed some variation (7 of 81 bp) from the sequences obtained from the stools of three persons made III by the outbreak. ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Article workform?8(Reynolds, K. A. C. P. Gerba I. L. Pepper1996QDetection of infectious enteroviruses by an integrated cell culture-PCR procedure 1424-1427&Applied and Environmental Microbiology624Rapid detection of infectious enteroviruses in environmental samples was made possible by utilizing an integrated cell culture-reverse transcriptase PCR approach. By this method, the presence of infectious enterovirus was confirmed within 24 h, compared with > or = 3 days by cell culture alone. The combined methodology eliminated typical problems normally associated with direct reverse transcriptase PCR by increasing the equivalent volume of environmental sample examined and reducing the effects of inhibitory compounds. ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?91U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1979,Viral hepatitis outbreaks - Georgia, Alabama581 (594-595 for issue 50)$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2849 & 50ProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?:&Ward, R. J. L. Melnick D. M. Horstmann1945EPoliomyelitis virus in fly-contaminated food collected at an epidemic491-493Science101 not availableProCite Record Number: 590Journal Short Form workform?<&Robertson, B. H. V. K. Brown B. Khanna1989PAltered hepatitis A VP1 protein resulting from cell culture propagation of virus207-212Virus Research1331Hepatitis A; cell-culture adapted; wild type; VP1The published sequence of hepatitis A virus (HAV), strain HAS-15, after 20-30 cell culture passages contains an 18 nucleotide deletion (Ovchinnikov et al., 1985) within the VP1 genome region. This results in a significant amino acid difference of the VP1 protein when this strain of HAV is compared with other published HAV sequences. Comparison of the polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic migration of HAS-15 HAV and two other strains of HAV revealed that the HAS-15 VP1 molecule migrated faster than the VP1 molecule of the other two strains. Enzymatic amplification of viral RNA derived from the original stool suspension and cell culture adapted HAS-15 using the polymerase chain reaction followed by hybridization analyses with selected synthetic oligonucleotide probes revealed that the original wild type virus did not contain the deletion. These results confirm that cell culture adapted HAS-15 contains an eighteen nucleotide deletion which apparently was selected during cell culture adaptation. ProCite Record Number: 600Journal Short Form workform?=1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1982,Outbreak of foodborne hepatitis - New Jersey150$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report3112ProCite Record Number: 600Journal Short Form workform?>GJothikumar, N. P. Khanna R. Paulmurugan S. Kamatchiammal P. Padmanabhan1995A simple device for the concentration and detection of enterovirus, hepatitis E virus and rotavirus from water samples by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction401-415Journal of Virological Methods553|(Original) Waterborne virus, concentration, enterovirus, hepatitis E virus, rotavirus, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assayA simultaneous concentration of enteroviruses, hepatitis E virus, and rotavirus from drinking water samples through a filtration column filled with granular activated carbon (GAC) was achieved. Urea-arginine phosphate buffer (UAPB) as an eluent at pH 9.0 was used for effective desorption and elution of viruses from GAC. Further concentration of viruses with magnesium chloride enabled nucleic acid extraction, cDNA synthesis, amplification with a specific set of primers for enterovirus, hepatitis E virus and rotavirus. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products were then confirmed by Southern transfer and hybridization with the relevant probes. The efficacy of the protocol was established with 100 1 of water samples seeded with poliovirus-1, providing 74% recovery in granular activated carbon based UAPB-RT-PCR. The GAC-based method for concentration of viruses from water samples was preferred, despite its somewhat lower efficacy compared to 80% in membrane filter based UAPB-RT-PCR protocol, due to the specific requirements of short-time and savings in cost of analyses. The protocol was used for the detection of waterborne viruses from 24 drinking water sources in urban areas of New Delhi. Direct isolation of viruses from water samples revealed that the 4 samples were positive for enteroviruses, two for hepatitis E virus, and 10 samples for rotavirus. One sample was positive for both hepatitis E virus and rotavirus, and another for all the 3 types of viruses. ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Article workform??3Ross, B. C. B. N. Anderson P. C. Edwards I. D. Gust1989~Nucleotide sequence of high-passage hepatitis A virus strain HM175: comparison with wild-type and cell culture-adapted strains 2850-2810Journal of General Virology70Pt105Hepatitis A; nucleotide sequence; high passage strainThe nucleotide sequence of cDNA from a high-passage, cell culture-adapted variant of hepatitis A virus strain HM175 was compared with the previously determined sequences of wild-type virus and two other cell culture-adapted variants. A total of 42 nucleotide changes were detected when the sequence was compared with wild-type virus. Five of these changes were common to all cell culture-adapted strains and a further two changes were shared by the strains that had experienced the greatest number of cell culture passages. The mutations were distributed throughout the genome coding for amino acid substitutions in regions 2B, 2C and 3D with silent changes in 1C and the 5' non-coding region. The possible relevance of these mutations to cell culture adaptation and attenuation is discussed. ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Short Form workform?@0State Department of Health Services (California)1981AHepatitis A outbreak associated with a food handler - Los Angeles1"California Morbidity Weekly Report39ProCite Record Number: 610Journal Short Form workform?A$Safferman, R. S. M. E. Gohr T. Goyke1988Assessment of recovery efficiency of beef extract reagents for concentrating viruses from municipal wastewater sludge solids by the organic flocculation procedure309-316&Applied and Environmental Microbiology542ZThis study was designed to assess the capacity of beef extract reagents to form flocs suitable for virus adsorption. Reagent comparisons resulted in the establishment of a modified organic flocculation procedure to concentrate viruses desorbed from sewage sludge solids with currently available modified powdered beef extracts. The method, based on supplementation with paste beef extract floc, achieved virus recoveries comparable to those obtained with powdered beef extract produced before a 1979 change in the manufacturing process. When primary settled sludge solids originating from mostly domestic waste were eluted with an unsupplemented modified powdered beef extract, high virus recovery efficiency was observed upon concentration by organic flocculation. This appreciable increase might have been due to floc-forming substances that were present in the primary settled sludge. These substances did not appear to be present in settled sludge collected from biologically treated wastes. Apparently, the floc-forming substances had been either removed or substantially altered during biological treatment. ProCite Record Number: 620Journal Short Form workform?B%Schwab, K. J. R. de Leon M. D. Sobsey1993?Development of PCR methods for enteric virus detection in water211-218Water Science and Technology273-4rRT-PCR; beef extract; enteric viruses; concerntration; purification; PEG precipitation; spin-column chromatography9This study developed a reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection system for enteric viruses in sample concerntrates obtained by conventional filter adsorption-elution methods. One liter beef extract (BE)-glycine (G) eluant seeded with poliovirus 1 and hepatitis A virus (HAV) was used as a model system and the eluant further processed for RT-PCR compatibility. Sample concentration and purification procedures consisted of polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, Pro-Cipitate (Affinity Technology, New Brunswick, No) precipitation, a second PEG precipitation, spin-column chromatography, and ultrafiltration.. Sample volumes are reduced from 1L to 20-40 µL and purified sufficiently for viral detecton by RT-PCR. As little as 3 PFU of poliovirus 1 in an initial 1 L eluate were detected by RT-PCR.ProCite Record Number: 630Journal Short Form workform?C1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973Waterborne hepatitis A -Alabama118$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2214ProCite Record Number: 630Journal Short Form workformd?D4Sobsey, M. D. C. H. Dean M. E. Knuckles R. A. Wagner1980>Interactions and survival of enteric viruses in soil materials92-101&Applied and Environmental Microbiology401aThere were marked differences in the abilities of eight different soil materials to remove and retain viruses from settled sewage, but for each soil material the behavior of two different viruses, poliovirus type 1 and reovirus type 3, was often similar. Virus adsorption to soil materials was rapid, the majority occurring within 15 min. Clayey materials efficiently adsorbed both viruses from wastewater over a range of pH and total dissolved solids levels. Sands and organic soil materials were comparatively poor adsorbents, but in some cases their ability to adsorb viruses increased at low pH and with the addition of total dissolved solids or divalent cations. Viruses in suspensions of soils materil in settled sewage survived for considerable time periods, despite microbial activity. In some cases virus survival was prolonged in suspensions of soil materials compared to soil-free controls. Although sandy and organic soil materials were poor virus adsorbents when suspended in wastewater, they gave > 95% virus removal from intermittently applied wastewater as unsaturated, 10 cm-deep columns. However, considerable quantities of the retained viruses were washed from the columns by simulated rainfall. Under the same conditions, clayey soil material removed > 99.9995% of the viruses from applied wastewater, and were washed from the columns by simulated rainfall.ProCite Record Number: 640Journal Short Form workform?E1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1972Hepatitis - Alabama439&444$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2151ProCite Record Number: 640Journal Short Form workform ?F'Sobsey, M. D. S. E. Oglesbee D. A. Wait1985MEvaluation of methods for concentrating hepatitis A virus from drinking water 1457-1463&Applied and Environmental Microbiology506 By using recently developed cultivation and assay systems, currently available methods for concentrating enteric viruses from drinking water by adsorption to and subsequent elution from microporous filters followed by organic flocculation were evaluated for their ability to recover hepatitis A virus (HAV). Cell culture-adapted HAV (strain HM-175) in seeded tapwater was efficiently adsorbed by both electronegative (Filterite) and electropositive (Virosorb 1MDS) filters at pH and ionic conditions previously used for other enteric viruses. Adsorbed HAV was efficiently eluted from these filters by beef extract eluents at pH 9.5. Eluted HAV was further concentrated efficiently by acid precipitation (organic flocculation) of eluents containing beef extract made from powdered, but not paste, sources. By using optimum adsorption conditions for each type of filter, HAV was concentrated greater than 100-fold from samples of seeded tapwater, with about 50% recovery of the initial infectious virus added to the samples. The ability to recover and quantify HAV in contaminated drinking water with currently available methods should prove useful in further studies to determine the role of drinking water in HAV transmission. By using recently developed cultivation and assay systems, currently available methods for concentrating enteric viruses from drinking water by adsorption to and subsequent elution from microporous filters followed by organic flocculation were evaluated for their ability to recover hepatitis A virus (HAV). Cell culture-adapted HAV (strain HM-175) in seeded tapwater was efficiently adsorbed by both electronegative (Filterite) and electropositive (Virosorb 1MDS) filters at pH and ionic conditions previously used for other enteric viruses. Adsorbed HAV was efficiently eluted from these filters by beef extract eluents at pH 9.5. Eluted HAV was further concentrated efficiently by acid precipitation (organic flocculation) of eluents containing beef extract made from powdered, but not paste, sources. By using optimum adsorption conditions for each type of filter, HAV was concentrated greater than 100-fold from samples of seeded tapwater, with about 50% recovery of the initial infectious virus added to the samples. The ability to recover and quantify HAV in contaminated drinking water with currently available methods should prove useful in further studies to determine the role of drinking water in HAV transmission. ProCite Record Number: 650Journal Short Form workform?G1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1973-Hepatitis A among military personnel - Turkey283-284$Morbidity and Morality Weekly Report2233ProCite Record Number: 650Journal Short Form workform?H.Spillmann, S. K. F. Traub M. Schwyzer R. Wyler1987=Inactivation of animal viruses during sewage sludge treatment 2077-2081&Applied and Environmental Microbiology539Using a previously developed filter adsorption technique, the inactivation of a human rotavirus, a coxsackievirus B5, and a bovine parvovirus was monitored during sludge treatment processes. During conventional anaerobic mesophilic digestion at 35 to 36 degrees C, only minor inactivation of all three viruses occurred. The k' values measured were 0.314 log10 unit/day for rotavirus, 0.475 log10 unit/day for coxsackievirus B5, and 0.944 log10 unit/day for parvovirus. However, anaerobic thermophilic digestion at 54 to 56 degrees C led to rapid inactivation of rotavirus (k' greater than 8.5 log10 units/h) and of coxsackievirus B5 (k' greater than 0.93 log10 unit/min). Similarly, aerobic thermophilic fermentation at 60 to 61 degrees C rapidly inactivated rotavirus (k' = 0.75 log10 unit/min) and coxsackievirus B5 (k' greater than 1.67 log10 units/min). Infectivity of parvovirus, however, was only reduced by 0.213 log10 unit/h during anaerobic thermophilic digestion and by 0.353 log10 unit/h during aerobic thermophilic fermentation. Furthermore, pasteurization at 70 degrees C for 30 min inactivated the parvovirus by 0.72 log10 unit/30 min. In all experiments the contribution of temperature to the total inactivation was determined separately and was found to be predominant at process temperatures above 54 degrees C. In conclusion, the most favorable treatment to render sludge hygienically safe from the virological point of view would be a thermal treatment (60 degrees C) to inactivate thermolabile viruses, followed by an anaerobic mesophilic digestion to eliminate thermostable viruses that are more sensitive to chemical and microbial inactivations. ProCite Record Number: 660Journal Short Form workform?I1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1974?Foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks: annual summary 197321 & 40'Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 660Journal Short Form workform?JStramer, S. L. D. O. Cliver1984ESeptage treatments to reduce the numbers of bacteria and polioviruses566-572&Applied and Environmental Microbiology483Disposal of the pumped contents of septic tanks (septage) represents a possible means of dissemination of enteric pathogens including viruses, since persistence of enteroviruses in septic tank sludge for greater than 100 days has been demonstrated. The risk of exposure to potentially infectious agents can be reduced by disinfecting septages before their disposal. Of the septage disinfectants examined (technical and analytical grade glutaraldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, heat treatments, and a combination of heat and hydrogen peroxide), the treatment including hydrogen peroxide (5 mg, plus 0.33 mg of trichloroacetic acid, per ml of septage) and 55 degrees C killed virtually all the bacteria in septage within 1 h, whereas 55 degrees C alone inactivated inoculated polioviruses within 30 min. Virus was the most sensitive to heat, whereas fecal coliforms appeared to be the most sensitive to all chemical treatments. The responses of fecal streptococci and virus to both grades of glutaraldehyde (each at 1 mg/ml) were similar. Virus was more resistant than either fecal streptococci or total bacteria to low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (1 to 5 mg/ml); however, virus and fecal streptococci were more labile than total bacteria to the highest peroxide concentration (10 mg/ml) examined. It is possible that the treatment combining heat and hydrogen peroxide was the most effective in reducing the concentrations of all bacteria, because catalase and peroxidases as well as other enzymes were heat inactivated, although catalase seems the most likely cause of damage. However, this most effective treatment does not appear to be practical for on-site use as performed, so further work on septage disinfection is recommended. ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform&?K Public Health Laboratory Service19802MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8048ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform?LHealth and Welfare Canada1980?Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada: annual summary 197689ProCite Record Number: 670Journal Short Form workform?M8Syvänen, A. C. M. Bengtström J. Tenhunen H. Söderlund1988XQuantification of polymerase chain reaction products by affinity-based hybrid collection 11327-11337Nucleic Acids Research1623We have used oligonucleotides modified with biotin in the 5'-end as primers in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplification. This results in the synthesis of 5'-biotinylated DNA molecules, which are detected by hybridization to a labelled probe in solution. The formed hybrids are collected on an avidin-matrix by mediation of the biotin residue of the target molecules. The affinity-based hybrid collection method is quantitative and makes it possible to measure the amount of DNA produced in the PCR-amplification. At low concentrations of template the efficiency of the process is close to 100%, making it possible to detect the presence of a few molecules of target DNA in 25 cycles. With high template concentrations the efficiency of the process is low. ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform?N Public Health Laboratory Service1980Hepatitis A and cockles in Kent4MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8047ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform?OHealth and Welfare Canada1981?Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada: annual summary 197793ProCite Record Number: 680Journal Short Form workform/?P6Taylor, G. M. R. D. Goldin P. Karayiannis H. C. Thomas19926In situ hybridization studies in hepatitis A infection642648 Hepatology163NAn in situ hybridization method using radiolabeled oligonucleotide probes was developed to study primary sites of hepatitis A virus replication in an experimental animal model of infection. Hepatitis A genomic sequences were demonstrated in hepatocytes of four marmosets with acute hepatitis A by use of antisense probes. In two of these animals, staining was also found when a sense probe was used, which is consistent with active replication in the hepatocytes. The specificity of the hybridization signal was confirmed by neutralization with "cold" (i.e., unlabeled) probes and by absence of hybridization with non-A hepatitis and reverse antisense probes. The hepatocyte appeared to be the only cell type showing staining. No hybridization was found in other organs, including the intestine (n = 4) and, in one animal, the kidney and spleen. ProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform?Q Public Health Laboratory Service1980 Hepatitis A3-4MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London8047ProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform?R,U. S. Department of Health and Human Service1982AWater-related disease outbreaks survelliance: annual summary 19809(Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 690Journal Short Form workform/?S>Amela, C. I. Pachón R. Bueno C. de Miguel F. Martinez-Navarro1995vTrends in hepatitis A virus infection with reference to the process of urbanization in the greater Madrid area (Spain)569-573 European Journal of Epidemiology115P(Original) Epidemiologic method, hepatitis A virus, seroprevalence, transmissionHepatitis A is an infection transmitted by the fecal-oral route. Endemicity within a specific country is directly related to sanitation and hygienic standards, while being inversely related to socioeconomic conditions. We studied how the process of urbanization witnessed in Madrid had influenced the transmission of hepatitis A infection. In the Madrid Autonomous Region, this process first began in the early sixties and was not brought to a close until the late seventies. Catalytic models were used to estimate the annual infection rate, lambda, on the basis of seroprevalence data stratified by age. A cohort effect related to a fall-off in infancy-related hepatitis A virus (HAV) is to be observed in the results for the last few years. The model permits four birth cohort-based groups to be differentiated by lambda: individuals born pre-1960, lambda = 0.082 (95% CI 0.095-0.070); those born in the early sixties, lambda = 0.052 (95% CI 0.060-0.042); whose members were born in the late sixties, lambda = 0.033 (95% CI 0.041-0.025); and those born in the late seventies, lambda = 0.017 (95% CI 0.020-0.013). The first group includes those born before the urbanization process had started. The second and third groups coincide with the development stage of that process, hence exhibiting transitional rates. The fourth group reflects the process in its consolidation stage. This reduction in the transmission of infection has changed the manner of presentation, so that while isolated cases or small outbreaks tend to be more common nowadays, occasionally epidemics may evolve explosively. The average age at presentation has risen and the likelihood of symptomatic infection is higher.ProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workform?T8Tilzey, A. J. S. J. Palmer C. Harrington M. J. O'Doherty1996FHepatitis A vaccine responses in HIV-positive persons with haemophilia 1039-1041Vaccine1411The safety and immunogenicity of subcutaneously (s.c.) administered hepatitis A (HA) vaccine was evaluated in HIV positive and negative patients with haemophilia and healthy male controls. The vaccine was well tolerated. Seroconversion occurred among all controls after one dose of vaccine but was delayed among patients, particularly if HIV-positive-4 of 17 (24%) failed to respond to three doses of vaccine. Following the third dose of vaccine, geometric mean titres were significantly higher among controls (1354) than among HIV infected patients (204) (P < 0.05). Non-responders failed to develop an immune response following boosting with high titre vaccine. Patients with haemophilia may be vaccinated against HA s.c. but consideration should be given to ensuring that HIV-positive individuals with haemophilia and other immunosuppressed individuals should have their immune responses checked since additional booster doses or passive prophylaxis may be necessary in such individuals. ProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workformF?UGalbraith, N. S.1982Unpublished information-Communicable Disease Service, London, EnglandProCite Record Number: 700Journal Short Form workform1?WVTicehurst, J. R. S. M. Feinstone T. Chestnut N. C. Tassopoulos H. Popper R. H. Purcell1987UDetection of hepatitis A virus by extraction of viral RNA and molecular hybridization 1822-1829 Journal of Clinical Microbiology2510Hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA was extracted from cell culture, serum, liver, and feces and then detected by molecular hybridization with cloned HAV cDNA. Hybridization was approximately 10-fold more sensitive than immune electron microscopy or radioimmunoassay was and less sensitive than was assays of HAV infectivity in primates or in cell culture. As little as 10(3) 50% infective doses of HAV, or approximately 0.1 pg of viral RNA, was detected by this method. Analysis of fecal specimens from an experimentally infected marmoset and an epidemic of hepatitis A showed that HAV excretion could often be detected later in the illness by hybridization than by radioimmunoassay. This technique should be widely applicable for detection and analysis of HAV RNA. ProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workformF?X Alter, M. J.1982Unpublished information(Centers for Disease Control, Phoneix, AZProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workform?Y Warren, W. R.1953$Epidemiology of infectious hepatitis313-335Armed Force Medical Journal4ProCite Record Number: 710Journal Short Form workform ?\+Farquhar, J. D. J. Stokes Jr. W. D. Schrack1952OEpidemic of viral hepatitis apparently spread by drinking water and by contact 991-993+Journal of the American Medical Association149ProCite Record Number: 720Journal Short Form workform?] Tsai, Y. L. B. Tran C. J. Palmer1995JAnalysis of viral RNA persistence in seawater by reverse transcriptase-PCR363-366&Applied and Environmental Microbiology611It is important to determine the stability of naked viral RNA in seawater, since false-positive results can occur when reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) is used to detect viruses if the RT-PCR amplifies free RNA instead of RNA from intact viruses. An acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform method was used to extract total RNA from a filtered poliovirus cell culture suspension. The sensitivity of detection in this viral RNA study was 600 fg when RT-PCR was used. The extracted total RNA was seeded into filtered and unfiltered seawater, and the resulting preparations were incubated at 4 degrees C and at room temperature (23 +/- 1 degrees C). Our results showed that the seeded RNA was more stable in filtered seawater than in unfiltered seawater at both temperatures. The viral RNA could not be detected by the RT-PCR after 2 days of incubation in unfiltered seawater and after 28 days of incubation in filter-sterilized seawater. Therefore, because of the relatively short life of viral RNA in natural water, the detection of virus in environmental samples by the RT-PCR was mainly due to the presence of well-protected viral particles and not due to the presence of naked viral RNA. ProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?^Noordam, A. L. R. A. Coutinho1977SUnpublished information, Internal Health Department memo and personal communicationProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?_Sundell, C. G.1949EEpidemic of hepatitis in Grangesberg in Autumn of 1948 - Spring, 1949 2133-2149Svenska Läkartidningen46ProCite Record Number: 730Journal Short Form workform?`Vento, S. B. M. McFarlane C. G. McSorley S. Ranieri G. Giuliani-Piccari P. R. Dal Monte G. Verucchi R. Williams F. Chiodo I. G. McFarlane1988CLiver autoreactivity in acute virus A, B and non-A, non-B hepatitis1-7+Journal of Clinical & Laboratory Immunology251As part of an investigation into the question of whether virus-induced autoreactivity might contribute to liver damage in viral hepatitis, serial studies (from onset through recovery) of circulating liver autoantibodies have been performed in patients with uncomplicated acute virus A (AVH-A), B (AVH-B) and non-A, non-B (AVH-NANB) hepatitis in whom the time of onset of symptoms could be precisely documented. One hundred and forty-four sera from 35 patients were tested by radioimmunoassay for autoantibodies against the liver-derived lipoprotein complex, LSP, and also against one of its constituents--the asialoglycoprotein receptor, known as hepatic lectin (HL). Anti-LSP antibodies were found in all 10 patients with AVH-A, in 17/18 with AVH-B and in 3/7 with AVH-NANB at titres that declined during recovery. Anti-HL antibodies were detected concurrently in 6 of the AVH-A patients and in 5 with AVH-B but on only 1 occasion in 1 patient with AVH-NANB. Transient cellular immunity to LSP, assayed by a T-lymphocyte migration inhibitory factor test, was detected in 4 of the 6 AVH-B patients tested, 2 of whom also showed concurrent reactivity to HL, but these cellular immune responses did not correlate with production of anti-LSP and/or anti-HL. The findings indicate that humoral immune responses to liver cell surface antigens are frequently triggered by hepatitis A and B viruses, possibly via induction of autoreactive, T-cell independent, liver antigen-specific B lymphocytes. These liver-specific autoreactions have the potential to contribute to hepatocellular damage in virus A and B hepatitis but it seems unlikely that autoimmunity plays a significant pathogenetic role in NANB viral infections. ProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform&?a1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare196718-19UFoodborne outbreaks: status report for 1967, Centers for Disease Control. Atlanta, GAProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform?b Waltrip, S.1982KUnpublished information, HER, United States Environmental Protection AgencyProCite Record Number: 740Journal Short Form workform?c Cliver, D. O.1994'Epidemiology of viral foodborne disease263-266Journal of Food Protection573Virus transmission via foods begins with fecal shedding of viruses by humans. Foodborne viruses infect perorally: These same agents have alternative fecal-oral routes, including person-to-person transmission and the water vehicle. No zoonotic viruses are transmitted via foods in North America. Viruses rank high among foodborne disease agents in the United States, even though observation, diagnosis, and reporting of foodborne viral disease are inefficient. Risk assessment in developed countries considers viral infection rates and personal hygiene of food handlers, as well as the opportunities for contamination of shellfish and other foods by untreated sewage. Licensing of a vaccine against hepatitis A that could be administered to food handlers in North America would provide an important means of preventing foodborne viral disease. However, the most general concern in preventing all foodborne viral disease is to keep all human fecal contamination out of food.ProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform?dWallis, C. J. L. Melnick1961&Stabilization of poliovirus by cations683-700%Texas Reports on Biology and Medicine19 no abstractProCite Record Number: 750'Journal Short Form workform (42) review?e1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1962Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform?f Barron, R. D.1954?Infectious hepatitis in Army installation in the Kingston area 25-30!Canadian Journal of Public Health43ProCite Record Number: 750Journal Short Form workform,?g+Weingold, S. E. J. J. Guzewich J. K. Fudala19947Use of foodborne disease data for HACCP risk assessment820-830Journal of Food Protection579N(Original) HACCP, foodborne disease, risk assessment, United-States, outbreaksMethodological limitations in the way foodborne disease data are analyzed and reported nationally make it difficult to use it for Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) risk assessment. This warranted the creation of a new system of classification and analysis. Foodborne disease data from reported outbreaks in New York State (NYS) between the years 1980-1991 (1,528 outbreaks involving 31,675 cases) were reviewed to develop two new categories by which foodborne disease vehicles were classified: Method of Preparation and Significant Ingredient. In addition, the current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) list of contributing factors was expanded to more accurately reflect common problems encountered in these outbreaks. Data grouped by this method can be more readily used for the hazard analysis, identification of Critical Control Points (CCPs) and establish critical limits steps of the HACCP system. By identifying these features in a system that closely relates to the food preparation practices, corrective action can be taken to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of illness from that particular food. Two dimensional tables of these new data show trends in preparation methods, ingredients and contributing factors that can be used for risk assessment of establishments and their menus. A more detailed table shows agents of concern and likely CCPs associated with specific ingredients for each method of preparation that more accurately links foodborne disease data with HACCP. The presented data illustrates how this new method of analysis can be used to perform HACCP risk assessment. Increased support of foodborne disease surveillance would provide the data needed to make this new system a valuable tool for use in HACCP risk assessment.ProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?i1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1963Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?jArcher, T. C. R.1954IAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis apparently due to a water-borne agent161-170'Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps100ProCite Record Number: 760Journal Short Form workform?l#Wang, C. H. S. Y. Tschen B. Flehmig1996gQuantitative determination of immune response against hepatitis A virus capsids after natural infection355-356Vaccine144ProCite Record Number: 770'Journal Short Form workform (42) letter?m1U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare1978Unpublished informationProCite Record Number: 770Journal Short Form workform?n&Tucker, C. B. W. H. Owen R. P. Farnell1954HAn outbreak of infectious hepatitis apparently transmitted through water732-740Southern Medical Journal47ProCite Record Number: 770Journal Short Form workform?oaHerwaldt, B. L. J. F. Lew C. L. Moe D. C. Lewis C. D. Humphrey S. S. Monroe E. W. Pon R. I. Glass1994~Characterization of a Variant Strain of Norwalk Virus from a Food-borne Outbreak of Gastroenteritis on a Cruise Ship in Hawaii861-866 Journal of Clinical Microbiology324A gastroenteritis outbreak affecting at least 217 (41%) of 527 passengers on a cruise ship was caused by a variant strain of Norwalk virus (NV) that is related to but distinct from the prototype NV strain. Consumption of fresh-cut fruit served at two buffets was significantly associated with illness (P < or = 0.01), and a significant dose-response relationship was evident between illness and the number of various fresh-cut fruit items eaten. Seven (58%) of 12 paired serum specimens from ill persons demonstrated at least fourfold rises in antibody response to recombinant NV capsid antigen. A 32-nm small round-structured virus was visualized by electron microscopy in 4 (29%) of 14 fecal specimens, but none of the 8 specimens that were examined by an enzyme immunoassay for NV antigen demonstrated antigen. Four (40%) of 10 fecal specimens were positive by reverse transcriptase-PCR by using primer pairs selected from the polymerase region of NV. In a 145-bp region, the PCR product shared only 72% nucleotide sequence identity with the reference NV strain and 77% nucleotide sequence identity with Southampton virus but shared 95% nucleotide sequence identity with UK2 virus, a United Kingdom reference virus strain. In addition, the outbreak virus was serotyped as UK2 virus by solid-phase immune electron microscopy. The genetic and antigenic divergence of the outbreak strain from the reference NV strain highlights the need for more broadly reactive diagnostic assays and for improved understanding of the relatedness of the NV group of agents. ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform&?q Public Health Laboratory Service19822MCommunicable Disease Report, Communicable Disease Surveillance Center, London82ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform?rAnders, W. T. Kima19595On the epidemiology of hepatitis epidemica in Germany1-34^Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene I. Original176ProCite Record Number: 780Journal Short Form workform$?sGLo, S. V. A. M. Connolly S. R. Palmer D. Wright P. D. Thomas D. Joynson1994The role of the pre-symptomatic food handler in a common source outbreak of food-borne SRSV gastroenteritis in a group of hospitals513-521Epidemiology and Infection1133A common source outbreak of small round structure virus (SRSV) gastroenteritis affected 81 patients and 114 staff in four hospitals served by one central hospital kitchen. Eating salad items was found to be significantly associated with illness. In a cohort study of a staff buffet function eating turkey salad sandwiches was associated with illness (relative risk = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.4-4.1; P = 0.003), and a case control study of patients in one hospital showed an odds ratio of 6.6 (95% CI = 1.0-71.6; P = 0.04) for eating tuna salad and becoming ill. One of two food handlers who prepared the salads became ill the day following food preparation; she also had a young child at home who had been ill with a gastrointestinal illness during the previous two days. Contamination of food by mechanical transmission of the virus from the child via clothes and hands of the mother, or pre-symptomatic faecal excretion in the mother are possible explanations of contamination of food. ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workformX?t Ward, R. L.1982NEvidence that microorganisms cause inactivation of viruses in activated sludge 1221-1224Appl. Environ. Microbiol.435xVirus loss in activated sludge appeared to be caused by microorganisms. This conclusion is supported by the finding that poliovirus infectivity decreased during incubation in mixed-liquor suspended solids, primarily because of a sedimentable, heat-sensitive component. Furthermore, broth spiked with mixed-liquor suspended solids acquired antiviral activity during incubation.ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workform?u Jensen, R. A.1955TEpidemic hepatitis: report on a hospital epidemic and an epidemic in a populous area458-460&Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforning75ProCite Record Number: 790Journal Short Form workform?v*Morgan, D. M. E. Black A. Charlett H. John19944Viral gastroenteritis associated with a sandwich barR91-R92Communicable Disease Report48 not availableProCite Record Number: 800Journal Short Form workform?x)Peczenik, A. D. W. Duttweiler R. H. Moser1956:An apparently water-borne outbreak of infectious hepatitis 1008-1017!American Journal of Public Health46ProCite Record Number: 800Journal Short Form workform?zDavis, T. R. A.1957:An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in two Arctic villages881-884 New England Journal of Medicine 256ProCite Record Number: 810Journal Short Form workform?| Sanyal, M. C.1957YEpidemic of infectious hepatitis amongst personnel of the armed forces, Delhi (1955-1956)91-99.Indian Journal of Medical Research Supplement 45ProCite Record Number: 820Journal Short Form workform?}'Public Health Laboratory Service, U. K.1994YGastrointestinal virus infections, England and Wales: laboratory reports, weeks 94/22-25120Communicable Disease Report426ProCite Record Number: 820Journal Short Form workformW?~Parker, S. P. W. D. Cubitt1994Measurement of IgA responses following Norwalk virus infection and other human caliciviruses using a recombinant Norwalk virus protein EIA143-151Epidemiology and Infection1131,An enzyme immunoassay employing recombinant Norwalk virus capsid protein was evaluated for the measurement of IgA responses. Tests on 23 volunteers and patients known to have been infected with Norwalk virus (NV) showed that 19 developed significant IgA responses, 2 had unchanging levels of IgA and 2 failed to respond. There was no evidence of IgA responses to NV following infection with Hawaii or Snow Mountain-like viruses. Tests on sera from patients involved in outbreaks associated with eating contaminated shellfish suggest that some patients may have been infected with more than one strain of calicivirus. The use of the rNV EIA for measuring IgA and IgG responses in patients involved in a major outbreak of food poisoning affecting hospital staff indicated that the causative agent was probably NV. ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform!?(Ward, R. L. D. R. Knowlton P. E. Winston1986;Mechanism of inactivation of enteric viruses in fresh water450-459&Applied and Environmental Microbiology523,Fresh water obtained from nine sources was shown to cause inactivation of poliovirus. Further testing with four of these water samples showed that enteric viruses from different genera were consistently inactivated in these freshwater samples. Studies on the cause of inactivation were conducted with echovirus type 12 as the model virus. The results revealed that the virucidal agents in the waters tested could not be separated from microorganisms. Any treatment that removed or inactivated microorganisms caused loss of virucidal activity. Microbial growth in a sterilized creek water seeded with a small amount of stream water resulted in concomitant production of virucidal activity. When individual bacterial isolates obtained from a stream were grown in this sterilized creek water, most (22 of 27) produced a large amount of virucidal activity, although the amount varied from one isolate to the next. Active and inactive isolates were represented by both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Examination of echoviruses inactivated in stream water revealed that loss of infectivity first correlated with a slight decrease in the sedimentation coefficient of virus particles. The cause appeared to be cleavage of viral proteins, most notably, VP-4 and, to a lesser extent, VP-1. Viral RNA associated with particles was also cleaved but the rate was slower than loss of infectivity. These results suggest that proteolytic bacterial enzymes inactivate echovirus particles in fresh water by cleavage of viral proteins, thus exposing the viral RNA to nuclease digestion. ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform?Sidhu, A. S. S. S. Nair1957KSample survey on the incidence of infectious hepatitis in Delhi (1955-1956)31-47-Indian Journal of Medical Research Supplement45ProCite Record Number: 830Journal Short Form workform?Ward, R. L. C. S. Ashley1978BComparative effects of ammonia and related compounds on poliovirus198-200Appl. Environ. Microbiol.361The abilities of ammonia and related compounds to inactivate poliovirus were compared. Compounds virucidal at pH 9.5 had the following order of activities: ethylamine greater than propylamine, dimethylamine, methylamine greater than ammonia greater than 2-methoxyethylamine.ProCite Record Number: 840Journal Short Form workform?2Kheifets, L. B. T. L. Kamolokova R. A. Kantorovich1958;An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in an Arctic settlement48-50Problems of Virology3ProCite Record Number: 840Journal Short Form workform?Zhumatov, K. H. F. G. Dardik1958,A waterborne outbreak of infective hepatitis37-41Probelms of Virology3ProCite Record Number: 850Journal Short Form workform? Fries, R.1994Viruses in foods: A review740-742Fleischwirtsch747ReviewProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workform1? Ward, R. L.1978/Mechanism of poliovirus inactivation by ammonia299-305 J. Virol.262Poliovirus inactivation by ammonia causes a slight reduction in the sedimentation coefficients of viral particles, but has no detectable effect on either the electrophoretic pattern of viral capsid proteins or the isoelectric points of inactivated particles. These virions still attach to cells, but are unable to repress host translation or stimulate the synthesis of detectable amounts of viral RNA. Although ammonia has no detectable effect on naked poliovirus RNA, it causes cleavage of this RNA when still within viral particles. Therefore, the RNA genome appears to be the only component of poliovirus significantly affected by ammonia.ProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workform? Wilson, J. G.1957#An outbreak of infectious hepatitis832-833medical Journal of Australia1ProCite Record Number: 860Journal Short Form workformN?Greiser-Wilke, I. R. Fries1994FMethods for detection of viral contaminations in food of animal origin284-290%Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift1017\Contamination of foods of animal origin with pathogenic human viruses may occur during handling or through polluted water. Most of these viruses are pathogens originating from the human gastrointestinal tract. They can be transmitted by the consumption of contaminated food and often cause disease. A survey is given of DNA- and RNA-viruses that may occur as contaminants of foods. In addition, the classical methods for detecting viral contaminations in foods are summarized. They are based on the effects after virus inoculation of cell cultures. Besides the fact that these methods are not economic and time consuming, they do not permit detection of some of the most important foodborne gastroenteritis viruses. The possibility of replacing these methods by detecting the viral genomes using hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is discussed. ProCite Record Number: 870Journal Short Form workform?:Mosley, J. W. W. D. Schrack Jr. T. W. Densham L. D. Matter1959[Infectious hepatitis in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania; I. A probable water-borne epidemic555American Journal of Medicine26ProCite Record Number: 870Journal Short Form workform?3Bouchriti, N. S. M. Goyal A. El Marrakchi M. Jellal1994WComparison of three methods for the concentration of poliovirus from Moroccan shellfish996-1000Journal of Food Protection5711i(Original) Oysters, enterovirus, concentration method, hepatitis, enteric viruses, oysters, contaminationkThree methods were evaluated for the concentration of poliovirus from artificially contaminated oysters (Crassostrea gigas), mussels (Mytilus edulis) and carpet-shell clams (Ruditapes decussatus) grown in Morocco. The methods tested were: an adsorption-elution-precipitation method, a beef extract elution acid-precipitation method, and a non-fat dry milk elution acid-precipitation method. For all shellfish species tested, the adsorption-elution-precipitation method yielded the lowest average virus recovery (27%), whereas the two elution-precipitation methods yielded average virus recoveries of 42% each. The beef extract elution acid-precipitation method yielded the highest virus recovery with clams (53%), whereas non-fat dry milk elution acid-precipitation was advantageous for mussels providing average virus recovery of 47%. For oysters, none of the tested methods gave satisfactory virus recovery. These results point towards the need for the development of better method(s) for the concentration of viruses from Moroccan oysters, while for mussels and clams, the elution-acid precipitation methods may be satisfactory.ProCite Record Number: 880Journal Short Form workform?Mosley, J. W. W. W. Smither1957MInfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak probably caused by drinking water590-595New England Journal of Medicine257ProCite Record Number: 880Journal Short Form workform?%Lees, D. N. K. Henshilwood W. J. Dore1994eDevelopment of a method for detection of enteroviruses in shellfish by PCR with poliovirus as a model 2999-3005&Applied and Environmental Microbiology608The application of the PCR to complex samples is hindered by amplification inhibitors. We describe a reverse transcription-PCR-based method capable of inhibitor removal for the detection of enteroviruses in shellfish. Initial virus extraction stages based on a modified polyethylene glycol precipitation technique (G.D. Lewis and T.G. Metcalf, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:1983-1988, 1988) were followed by virus purification with 1,1,2-trichloro,2,2,1-trifluoroethane and concentration by ultrafiltration. A guanidine isothiocyanate-glass powder extraction system was utilized for sample lysis, RNase protection, and nucleic acid purification. Removal of PCR inhibitors and method sensitivity were quantified in shellfish (oysters and mussels) seeded with poliovirus. PCR sample tolerance exceeded 4 g for depurated shellfish; however, polluted field samples were more inhibitory. Virus recoveries of 31% for oyster extracts and 17% for mussel extracts and nucleic acid extraction reverse transcription-PCR detection limits down to 1 PFU yielded an overall sensitivity limit of < 10 PFU of poliovirus in up to 5 g of shellfish. PCR-positive results were obtained from a variety of polluted field samples naturally contaminated with human enteroviruses. The methods developed for virus recovery and PCR inhibitor removal should be equally applicable to detection of other RNA viruses such as hepatitis A virus, Norwalk virus, and other small round-structured viruses in shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workformL?Werzberger, A. B. Mensch B. Kuter L. Brown J. Lewis R. Sitrin W. Miller D. Shouval B. Wiens G. Calandra J. Ryan P. Provost D. Nalin1992TA controlled trial of a formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in healthy children453-457N. Engl. J. Med..137BACKGROUND. Although inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is known to be well tolerated and immunogenic in healthy children and adults, its efficacy has yet to be established. METHODS. To evaluate the efficacy of the hepatitis A vaccine in protecting against clinically apparent disease, we conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in an Hasidic Jewish community in upstate New York that has had recurrent outbreaks of hepatitis A. At the beginning of a summer outbreak, 1037 healthy seronegative children 2 to 16 years of age were randomly assigned to receive one intramuscular injection of a highly purified, formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine or placebo. A case was defined by the presence of typical signs and symptoms, a diagnostic increase in IgM antibody to hepatitis A, and a serum concentration of alanine aminotransferase at least twice the upper limit of normal. Cases occurring greater than or equal to 50 days after the injection were included in the evaluation of efficacy. The children were followed for a mean of 103 days. RESULTS. A total of 519 children received vaccine, and 518 received placebo. The vaccine was well tolerated, with no serious adverse reactions. From day 50 after the injection, 25 cases of clinically apparent hepatitis A occurred in the placebo group and none in the vaccine group (P less than 0.001), confirming that the vaccine had 100 percent protective efficacy. Before day 21, seven cases occurred in the vaccine group and three cases in the placebo group. After that time, there were no cases among vaccine recipients and 34 cases among placebo recipients. CONCLUSIONS. The inactivated purified hepatitis A vaccine that we tested is well tolerated, and a single dose is highly protective against clinically apparent hepatitis A.ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workform?Christiansen, O.1957 A water-borne hepatitis epidemic539-542Ugeskrift for Laeger119ProCite Record Number: 890Journal Short Form workform?.Le Guyader, F. E. Dubois D. Menard M. Pommepuy1994Detection of hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, and enterovirus in naturally contaminated shellfish and sediment by reverse transcription-seminested PCR 3665-3671&Applied and Environmental Microbiology6010A reverse transcription-PCR method was developed to detect enterovirus (EV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and rotavirus (RV) RNAs in shellfish and sediment. The method was first tested under experimental conditions by using virus-spiked shellfish to evaluate assay sensitivity. The use of CC41 cellulose was found to be efficient for removing inhibitors of RV detection. For sediment samples, a Sephadex column was used to allow the detection of EV and HAV RNAs. The specificity of amplified products was controlled by hybridization with digoxigenin-labeled oligoprobes. The method was then applied to naturally contaminated shellfish and sediments. EV, HAV, and RV RNAs were detected in 22, 14, and 20% of the shellfish samples, respectively. No relationship between viral contamination and bacterial contamination was found. When viral RNAs (HAV or EV) were detected in sediments, they were also detected in shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?MWheeler, C. M. B. H. Robertson G. Van Nest D. Dina D. W. Bradley H. A. Fields1986IStructure of the hepatitis A virion: peptide mapping of the capsid region307-313Journal of Virology582Milligram amounts of highly purified hepatitis A virus (HAV) were obtained from persistently infected cell cultures. The HAV polypeptides were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred to nitrocellulose for detection by an enzyme-linked immunotransfer blot procedure. The HAV nucleotide-derived amino acid sequence was subjected to computer analysis to identify potential immunogenic regions within the HAV capsid polypeptides. Synthetic peptides corresponding to selected regions of each of the larger putative capsid polypeptides were coupled to keyhole limpet hemocyanin and used to immunize rabbits. Four of six anti-HAV peptide sera were strongly reactive. Antipeptide serum generated against amino acids (a.a.) 75 through 82 reacted with the 27,000-molecular-weight (MW) polypeptide; serum against a.a. 279 through 285 reacted with the 29,000-MW HAV polypeptide; and sera against a.a. 591 through 602 and 606 through 618 reacted with the 33,000-MW HAV polypeptide. These reactions enabled the identification of the gene order of the larger HAV P1 region gene products. Our data indicate the following molecular weights: HAV VP2 or 1B, 27,000; HAV VP3 or 1C, 29,000; and HAV VP1 or 1D, 33,000. ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?Anderson, C. E.19576An infectious hepatitis outbreak in a country district235-237New Zealand Medical Journal56ProCite Record Number: 900Journal Short Form workform?+Willcocks, M. M. J. G. Silcock M. J. Carter1993EDetection of Norwalk virus in the UK by the polymerase chain reaction7-12FEMS Microbiology Letters1121*We have developed a polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Norwalk virus using the published sequence of the virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase gene and have used this to clone and sequence this region of a virus from a UK outbreak. We have applied this method to a panel of UK Norwalk-like viruses using both Tet-z and Taq DNA polymerases and found that amplification produces a multiplicity of bands from stool samples. However, in combination with Southern blotting, Taq polymerase amplification detected virus in 13 of a panel of 30 clinical samples known to contain these viruses and also detected astroviruses in a mixed infection. Amplification using Tet-z DNA polymerase was less efficient (6/30) and detected predominantly viruses typed as UK type 2 by solid phase immune electron microscopy. ProCite Record Number: 910Journal Short Form workform?!Poskanzer, D. C. W. G. Beadenkopf1961HWaterborne infectious hepatitis epidemic from a chlorinated water supply745-751U. S. Public Health Report76ProCite Record Number: 910Journal Short Form workform?7Gouvea, V. N. Santos M. do Carmo Timenetsky M. K. Estes1994SIdentification of Norwalk virus in artificially seeded shellfish and selected foods177-187Journal of Virological Methods482-3E(Original) Gastroenteritis, Norwalk virus, viral RNA recovery, RT-PCRA rotavirus dsRNA purification protocol was adapted to extract Norwalk ssRNA from artificially contaminated shellfish, and a sensitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay for Norwalk virus was devised to identify an estimated 20-200 genomic copies. The technique includes deproteinization with guanidinium isothiocyanate, adsorption of RNA to hydroxyapatite, and sequential precipitation with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and ethanol. The protocol allows high recovery of viral RNA free of enzymatic inhibitors from oysters, clams, and a variety of food matrices. Norwalk virus sequences were copied and amplified by using primers selected from the polymerase gene. Digestion of the amplified products with restriction enzymes ensured the specificity of the test. This rapid and sensitive assay may significantly improve the prospect for the routine screening of the uncultivatable Norwalk virus in food stuffs.ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform?-Winokur, P. L. J. H. McLinden J. T. Stapleton1991The hepatitis A virus polyprotein expressed by a recombinant vaccinia virus undergoes proteolytic processing and assembly into viruslike particles 5029-5036Journal of Virology659OHepatitis A virus (HAV) contains a single-stranded, plus-sense RNA genome with a single long open reading frame encoding a polyprotein of approximately 250 kDa. Viral structural proteins are generated by posttranslational proteolytic processing of this polyprotein. We constructed recombinant vaccinia viruses which expressed the HAV polyprotein (rV-ORF) and the P1 structural region (rV-P1). rV-ORF-infected cell lysates demonstrated that the polyprotein was cleaved into immunoreactive 29- and 33-kDa proteins which comigrated with HAV capsid proteins VP0 and VP1. The rV-P1 construct produced a 90-kDa protein which showed no evidence of posttranslational processing. Solid-phase radioimmunoassays with human polyclonal anti-HAV sera and with murine or human neutralizing monoclonal anti-HAV antibodies recognized the rV-ORF-infected cell lysates. Sucrose density gradients of rV-ORF-infected cell lysates contained peaks of HAV antigen with sedimentation coefficients of approximately 70S and 15S, similar to those of HAV empty capsids and pentamers. Immune electron microscopy also demonstrated the presence of viruslike particles in rV-ORF-infected cell lysates. Thus, the HAV polyprotein expressed by a recombinant vaccinia virus demonstrated posttranslational processing into mature capsid proteins which assembled into antigenic viruslike particles. ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform? Jernelius, H.1958@An outbreak of infectious hepatitis in a manufacturing community109-115Nordisk Hygienisk Tidskrift39ProCite Record Number: 920Journal Short Form workform?8Lucena, F. J. Lasobras D. McIntosh M. Forcadell J. Jofre1994Effect of distance from the polluting focus on relative concentrations of Bacteroides fragilis phages and coliphages in mussels 2272-2277&Applied and Environmental Microbiology607Concentrations of fecal bacteria, somatic and F-specific coliphages, and phages infecting Bacteroides fragilis in naturally occurring black mussels (Mytilus edulis) were determined. Mussels were collected over a 7-month period at four sampling sites with different levels of fecal pollution. Concentrations of both fecal bacteria and bacteriophages in mussel meat paralleled the concentration of fecal bacteria in the overlying waters. Mussels bioaccumulated efficiently, although with different efficiencies, all of the microorganisms studied. Ratios comparing the levels of microorganisms in mussels were determined. These ratios changed in mussels collected at the different sites. They suggest that bacteriophages infecting B. fragilis and somatic coliphages have the lowest decay rates among the microorganisms studied, with the exception of Clostridium perfringens. On the contrary, concentrations of F-specific coliphages showed a greater rate of decay than the other bacteriophages at sites more distant from the focus of contamination. Additionally, levels of enteroviruses were studied in a number of samples, and in these samples, the B. fragilis bacteriophages clearly outnumbered the enteroviruses. The results of this study indicate that, under the environmental conditions studied, the fate of phages infecting B. fragilis released into the marine environment resembles that of human viruses more than any other microorganism examined. ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?Ward, B. K. L. G. Irving1987<Virus survival on vegetables spray-irrigated with wastewater57-63Water Research211A method, developed to detect low concentrations of virus on vegetables, irrigated with wasteater, was investigated in the field. Celery, spinach, lettuce and tomato crops, grown at an experimental station near Melbourne, Victoria, were spray-irrigated with stored wastewater, which had been seeded with either poliovirus or adenovirus. At specified intervals after irrigation, vegetables were harvested, washed to remove virus and the washings concentrated into a small volume which was inoculated into cell cultures for virus isolation. the method demonstrated rapid inactivation, within 48 h, of poliovirus on crops and low level persistence of this virus for up to 13 days. Adenoivirus could not be detected on a lettuce crop as early as 24h after irrigation. On crops harvested immediately after irrigation and stored at 4 C in ahumid atmosphere in the dark, the method was able to demonstrate more gradual inactivation of poliovirus than under field conditions and virus persistence for up to 76 days. Since seeded virus concentrations were similar to those commonly detected in wastewater before storage, results indicate that this is a practical method for assessing viral contamination of vegetable crops spray irrigated with wastewater.ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?Randel, H. W. C. W. Bovee1962EInfectious hepatitis: a water-borne outbreak at an air base in France 1483-1500!American Journal of Public Health52ProCite Record Number: 930Journal Short Form workform?,Bosch, A. F. X. Abad R. Gajardo R. M. Pintó19947Should shellfish be purified before public consumption? 1024-1025Lancet3448928LetterProCite Record Number: 940Journal Short Form workformT?Warner, R. D. et al.1992,A large nontypical outbreak of Norwalk virus55International Food Safety News17uFull context: The US Air Force Academy experienced a point-source outbreak of gastroenteritis, originally believed to be caused by Salmonella. The overall attack rate was 48% among approximately 3000 cadets and staff. Food specific attack rate implicated chicken salad-the celery component had been exposed to non-portable water. On analysis, most aspects were consistent with the epidemiology of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. However, the clinical presentation was not typical of reported outbreaks - 105cadets required intravenous rehydration. Serum samples implicated Norwalk virus as the most probable cause of the outbreak.ProCite Record Number: 9406Journal Short Form workform (42) Outbreaks & Incidents?Wallace, E. C.1958CInfectious hepatitis: report of an outbreak, apparently water-borne101-102Medical Journal of Australia1ProCite Record Number: 940Journal Short Form workform?Health and Welfare Canada1993PLaboratory reports of human viral and selected non-viral agents in Canada - 1992188-192"Canada Communicable Disease Report19-22 not availableProCite Record Number: 950Journal Short Form workform?Hilfenhaus, J. T. Nowak1994Inactivation of hepatitis A virus by pasteurization and elimination of picornaviruses during manufacture of factor VIII concentrate62-66 Vox Sanguinis671Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections have been reported among hemophiliacs who received factor VIII concentrates which had been purified by ion-exchange chromatography and treated by the solvent detergent (SD) method. Since the virus inactivation procedure of our manufacturing process is heat treatment of the stabilized, aqueous protein solution at 60 degrees C for 10 h (pasteurization), we investigated whether this method inactivated picornaviruses such as HAV and poliovirus type 1, which we routinely use as a test virus for non-enveloped viruses. HAV was substantially inactivated by pasteurization but the stabilizers used in the manufacturing process of the commercial products considerably delayed HAV inactivation. Residual infectious HAV was found even after 10 h heat treatment of the stabilized preparation. Thus HAV is more stable in the presence of stabilizers than poliovirus type 1. Furthermore, we studied stage by stage the elimination of poliovirus type 1 by the manufacturing procedure of these pasteurized factor VIII concentrates. Three other stages of the manufacturing process apart from pasteurization eliminated poliovirus by approximately three orders of magnitude each. Taking into account this efficient elimination of the picornavirus poliovirus and the substantial inactivation of HAV by pasteurization, we conclude that a high margin of safety exists for pasteurized factor VIII concentrates regarding HAV. This conclusion is supported by the fact that no HAV infection has been reported in hemophilia patients treated with pasteurized factor VIII concentrates. Furthermore, in a retrospective study, none of 95 patients subjected to a long-term treatment with pasteurized factor VIII concentrates had developed anti-HAV seroconversion as a result of this treatment. ProCite Record Number: 960Journal Short Form workform? Larkin, E. P.1981Food contaminants - viruses320-325Journal of Food protection444Viruses have been detected in a limited number of foods. Although methods used to examine these foods were usually restricted to detection of human enteroviruses, animal viruses were found in some meats, milk, and eggs; limitations in methodology may have caused other viruses present to go undetected. As the sensitivity of methods increases, studies are being undertaken to detect a greater variety of human intestinal viruses. data from these investigations should provide the information needed to determine the incidence and public health significance of food contamination by viruses. In areas where virus-contaminated foods may be expected, washing and heating foods to 70 C should provide reasonable protection against the inadvertent consumption of viruses.ProCite Record Number: 960'Journal Short Form workform (42) Review.?FWilcox Jr. , K. J. F. M. Davenport D. Coohon N. Papsdorf L. D. Johnson1961hAn epidemic of infectious hepatitis in a rural village attributable to widespread contamination of wells249-258American Journal of Hygiene74ProCite Record Number: 960Journal Short Form workform?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention2003`Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant --- Monaca, Pennsylvania, 2003 1155-1157Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rept.5247 November 28|7dChancellor, D. D. Tyagi, S. Bazaco, M. C. Bacvinskas, S. Chancellor, M. B. Dato, V. M. de Miguel, F.2006?Green onions: potential mechanism for hepatitis A contamination1468-72 J Food Prot696%Disease Outbreaks Food Contamination/*analysis *Food Microbiology Hepatitis A/*epidemiology/*virology *Hepatitis A virus/growth & development/isolation & purification/pathogenicity Humans Mexico/epidemiology Onions/*virology RNA, Viral/*analysis Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain ReactionJun#The largest documented foodborne hepatitis A outbreak in U.S. history occurred in November 2003. The source of that outbreak was green onions from a farm in Mexico. Two biomarkers were used to determine ways in which hepatitis A virus (HAV) can contaminate onions. Fluorescent microspheres (1.0 to 10 microm) and HAV vaccine were placed on the soil and the surfaces of pot-grown onions and in the liquid medium of hydroponically cultivated onions. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) was used to identify HAV RNA. Microspheres were found on the outside and inside of the pot-grown onions for up to 60 days. RT-PCR revealed HAV RNA from the vaccine in well-washed green onions. In the hydroponically grown onions, microspheres were found throughout the onion after only 1 day. RT-PCR also revealed HAV RNA inside the hydroponically grown onions. Both biomarkers support the hypothesis that HAV can contaminate the inside of the growing onion and can be taken up intracellularly through the roots. Once inside, the particles are impossible to remove by cleaning.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=16786877Chancellor, David D Tyagi, Shachi Bazaco, Michael C Bacvinskas, Sara Chancellor, Michael B Dato, Virginia M de Miguel, Fernando United States Journal of food protection J Food Prot. 2006 Jun;69(6):1468-72.0362-028X (Print)16786877iDepartment of Urology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.eng$?;Lambert, M. T. Patton T. Chudzio J. Machin P. Sankar-Mistry1991NAn outbreak of rotaviral gastroenteritis in a nursing home for senior citizens351-353Canada Journal of Public Health829-10 Not availableProCite Record Number: 970Journal Short Form workform?Patel, T. B. V. N. Rao1960RInfectious hepatitis outbreak in Bombay city: epidemiological investigation report29-37!Indian Journal of Medical Science14ProCite Record Number: 970Journal Short Form workform ?3Masár, I. J. Roda S. Palan M. Kossár A. Kristoffk19658An infectious hepatitis epidemic in a small town in 1964387-396>Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Immunology9ProCite Record Number: 980Journal Short Form workform ?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1994!New horizons: hepatitis A vaccine9-11ProCite Record Number: 980Journal Short Form workform (42) Hepatitis Surveillance Report No. 55. Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention? Anonymous1994&Hepatitis A Vaccine: "Havrix Monodose"3ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health: Scotland Weekly Report2894/21ProCite Record Number: 990Journal Short Form workform?Petschow, B. W. R. D. Talbott1994Reduction in virus-neutralizing activity of a bovine colostrum immunoglobulin concentrate by gastric acid and digestive enzymes228-2357Journal of Pediatric and Gastroenterology and Nutrition192Bovine milk immunoglobulin concentrates have been proposed for inducing passive immunity against various enteric pathogens. In vitro digestion studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of gastrointestinal secretions on the virus-neutralizing activity of a concentrate prepared from the colostrum of cows that were immunized with rotavirus. The proteolytic activity of human gastric and duodenal fluid specimens was used to design a two-stage in vitro digestion model with commercial enzymes for estimating the individual impact of pepsin, gastric acid, and select pancreatic enzymes on antirotavirus activity in bovine milk immunoglobulin concentrates. The rotavirus-neutralizing titer of concentrate was decreased by incubation with pepsin at pH 2, a pool of pancreatic enzymes at pH 7.5, or sequential digestion with pepsin (pH 2) and pancreatic enzymes (from initial titer of 55,210 to 2,030, 19,500, and 320, respectively). Reduction in rotavirus-neutralizing titer after gastric-phase digestion was primarily due to acidic conditions and not to proteolytic cleavage by pepsin. Although both trypsin and carboxypeptidase caused significant proteolysis of concentrate during duodenal-phase digestion, only trypsin caused a significant reduction in rotavirus-neutralizing titer. The extent of digestion was the same for concentrate suspended in water or skim milk. The results demonstrate that the biological activity of bovine milk antibodies is reduced by exposure to acid and trypsin in vitro and suggest that neutralization of both gastric acid and pancreatic trypsin may enhance the effectiveness and economic feasibility of passive oral immunoprophylaxis with bovine milk immunoglobulins. ProCite Record Number: 1000Journal Short Form workform[?YMajeed, F. A. J. M. Stuart K. A. Cartwright R. Room J. R. Gilkes M. C. Smith B. E. Watson1992,An outbreak of hepatitis A in Gloucester, UK167-173Epidemiology and Infection1091NDuring an outbreak of hepatitis A that occurred in Gloucester, UK between September 1989 and January 1991, 162 clinical cases were identified through notifications and laboratory reports, a monthly attack rate of 1.05 per 10,000 residents. The highest attack rate was seen in 5-14-year-olds. There were significant correlations between hepatitis A attack rates in the electoral wards of Gloucester and with the Jarman UPA 8 scores for the wards and with overcrowding, unemployment, under 5-year-olds and ethnic minority. The use of human normal immune globulin prophylaxis (HNIG) for household contacts was unsuccessful in ending the outbreak, partly because only one third of cases reported a household contact with recent hepatitis A. Our experience does not support the use of HNIG in stopping community-wide outbreaks of hepatitis A. Two public health campaigns were mounted during the outbreak; both were followed by a fall in the number of cases. Greater priority should be given to the implementation and evaluation of public health campaigns in future community-wide outbreaks of hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 1000Journal Short Form workform?ZBile, K. A. Isse O. Mohamud P. Allebeck L. Nilsson H. Norder I. K. Mushahwar L. O. Magnius1994Contrasting roles of rivers and wells as sources of drinking water on attack and fatality rates in a hepatitis E epidemic in Somalia466-4741American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene514oIn early 1988, an increased incidence of acute hepatitis was observed in villages along the Shebeli River in the Lower Shebeli region of Somalia. This was followed by a large epidemic that lasted until late 1989. In a survey of 142 villages with a population of 245,312 individuals, 11,413 icteric cases were recorded, of which 346 died, corresponding to an attack rate and a case fatality rate of 4.6% and 3.0%, respectively. The etiologic role of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in this epidemic was proven by demonstrating anti-HEV in 128 of 145 sampled cases as a sign of recent infection with HEV. In three villages, where a special study protocol was implemented, the attack rate was found to increase significantly with age from 5% in the group 1-4 years of age to 13% in the group 5-15 years of age and to 20% for persons older than 15 years of age. Among cases 20-39 years of age, the female-to-male ratio was 1.5:1, which was a significant predominance of females. As in other hepatitis E outbreaks, there was a high fatality rate in pregnant females, estimated to be 13.8%. The epidemic peaked with the rise in the level of the river during rainfall, suggesting that the disease was waterborne. The attack rate was higher (6.0%) in villages supplied with river water, while fewer cases were recorded in those relying on wells or ponds for their water supply, 1.7% and 1.2%, respectively. ProCite Record Number: 1010Journal Short Form workform?Feder, J. W. R. Tolbert1983.The large-scale cultivation of mammalian cells36-43Scientific American2481Novel reactors have been designed for growing in culture large quantities of the fragile, complex cells that synthesize medically important proteins such as interferon and monoclonal antibodiesProCite Record Number: 1010Journal Short Form workformI? Payment, P. E. Franco G. S. Fout1994Incidence of Norwalk virus infections during a prospective epidemiological study of drinking water related gastrointestinal illness805-809 Canadian Journal of Microbiology4010To determine the seroprevalence of Norwalk virus and whether Norwalk virus contributed to an observed increase in illness in tap water drinkers participating in a prospective epidemiological study, sera collected during the study were examined for changes in Norwalk virus antibody titer, using a specific enzyme immunoassay. Antibodies to Norwalk virus were measured in sera collected in March, June and September 1988 and in June 1989, and antibodies were found in 79% of the individuals. Seroprevalence increased with age, being 55% (ages 9-19), 79% (20-39), 87% (40-49), 84% (50-59), and 100% (60 and older). Norwalk infections occurred in 33% of the individuals during the course of the study. The highest rate of infection (expressed as a monthly rate) was observed during the summer of 1988. These results confirm that a large number of infections owing to Norwalk viruses occur throughout the year. A previous seroconversion or a high serum titer were not always protective. Finally, there was no detectable difference in infection rate between consumers of tap water and consumers of water treated by reverse-osmosis units, suggesting that Norwalk virus infections were not responsible for the excess of gastrointestinal illness observed in tap water drinkers during this epidemiological study. ProCite Record Number: 1020Journal Short Form workformN?:Rubertone, M. V. R. F. DeFraites M. R. Krauss C. A. Brandt1993DAn outbreak of hepatitis A during a military field training exercise37-41Military Medicine1581SHepatitis A continues to pose a preventable threat to modern day military forces. We describe a food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A during a field training exercise resulting in 22 ill soldiers and over 300 lost work days. Among the population at risk, the secondary attack rate was 19.6%. faced with epidemic diseases occurrences, epidemiologic investigation of potential cases and aggressive use of post-exposure prophylaxis is recommended in a field setting. Although immune serum globulin is liely to reduce transmission, not all cases of acute hepatitis A will be prevented by this action. ProCite Record Number: 1020Journal Short Form workform?.Cook, S. M. R. I. Glass C. W. LeBaron M. S. Ho1990*Global seasonality of rotavirus infections171-177)Bulletin of the World Health Organization682Data from 34 studies of the etiology of childhood diarrhoea were compiled in order to investigate the seasonal patterns of rotavirus gastroenteritis and consider their implications for transmission of the virus. Rotavirus was detected in 11-71% of children with diarrhoea, and the median rate of detection (33%) was independent of the level of economic development or geographical region of the study area, as well as of the method of detection used. While rotavirus infections have been called a winter disease in the temperate zones, we found that their incidence peaked in winter primarily in the Americas and that peaks in the autumn or spring are common in other parts of the world. In the tropics, the seasonality of such infections is less distinct and within 10 degrees latitude (north or south) of the equator, eight of the ten locations exhibited no seasonal trend. Throughout most of the world, rotavirus is present all the year round, which suggests that low-level transmission could maintain the chain of infection. The virus is spread by the faecal-oral route but airborne or droplet transmission has also been postulated. The epidemiology of rotavirus--its seasonality in the cooler months, its universal spread in temperate and tropical zones in developed and less developed settings--more closely resembles that of childhood viruses that are spread by the respiratory route (such as measles) than that of common enteric pathogens that are spread predominantly by the faecal-oral route. ProCite Record Number: 1030Journal Short Form workform{? Nasser, A. M.19941Prevalence and fate of hepatitis A virus in water281-3238Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology244(Original) Review, hepatitis A virus, cultivation, waste-water, water, prevalence, survival, treatment, removal, immune electron-microscopy, a-virus, environmental surfaces, indicator organisms, cyto-pathology, serial passage, cell-cultures, free chlorine, waste-water, antigenHepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major waterborne disease agent with worldwide distribution. The main transmission route of HAV is direct person-to-person contact. However, hepatitis A (HA) outbreaks associated with the consumption and use of fecally contaminated water were reported from many countries. Studies on the environmental behavior of HAV were feasible only after developing techniques for its cultivation and enumeration in tissue culture. This study reviews data on the extent of HAV prevalence and persistence in the environment and water. HA is highly prevalent in low socioeconomic populations as determined by seroepidemiologic studies. HAV is excreted for long periods by infected individuals, but it is also shed by healthy persons. HAV has been detected in concentrated wastewater and natural waters. However, in most cases the natural waters were monitored for the presence of HAV after the occurrence of HA outbreak. HAV persists for months at temperatures below 10 degrees C and for at least 1 month at ambient temperature (20 to 25 degrees C). Physical, biological, and chemical factors that influence the survival of enteric viruses - such as temperature, pH, salt concentration, microbial activity, and humidity - have similar effects on HAV. Drinking water treatment processes such as coagulation, high rate filtration, and disinfection seem to be effective in removing HAV from water.ProCite Record Number: 1040Journal Short Form workform#?UHalliday M. L. L. Y. Kang T. K. Zhou M. D. Hu Q. C. Pan T. Y. Fu Y. S. Huang S. L. Hu1991XAn epidemic of hepatitis A attributable to the ingestion of raw clams in Shanghai, China852-859J. Infect. Dis.1645An epidemic of hepatitis A in 1988 in Shanghai had an overall attack rate of 4083/100,000 population (292,301 cases). The epidemic curve showed three peaks in January and February. A case-control study of 1208 matched pairs supported that clams were the vehicle for the virus (summary odds ratio, 9.47; P less than .001). Analysis of subsets who had eaten clams indicated that only 3.5% with hepatitis A had cooked their clams compared with 18.1% without hepatitis A, and those with the disease consumed more clams. A historical cohort study indicated that approximately 31.7% of the population had eaten clams one or more times between 9 December 1987 and 3 January 1988. The estimated attack rates in those who had and had not eaten clams were 11.93% and 0.52%, respectively (relative risk, 22.94; attributable risk, 11.41%). The three peaks in the consumption curve correlated with those in the epidemic curve. Hepatitis A virus was demonstrated in clams taken from the Shanghai markets and from the catching area.ProCite Record Number: 1040Journal Short Form workform ?0Farrah, S. C. Wallis P. T. Shaffer J. L. Melnick1976)Reconcentration of poliovirus from sewage653-658&Applied and Environmental Microbiology325Virus can be adsorbed from effluents of sewage treatment plants on large-surface membranes. Subsequent elution of virus requires large volumes, which in turn requires reconcentration of virus for assay. However, reconcentration of such viral eluates on small adsorbent surfaces is difficult because certain soluble sewage components are adsorbed along with the virus on the initial virus adsorbent and are removed along with the virus by the eluent. Upon acidification of the initial eluate to reconcentrate the virus on smaller membrane surfaces, flocs are formed that interfere with the reconcentration process. To circumvent this problem, the interfering sewage components can be removed by activated carbon and ion-exchange resins. The virus is then readily reconcentrated on small membranes. ProCite Record Number: 1050Journal Short Form workform?Black, E. K. G. R. Finch1994EDetection and occurrence of waterborne bacterial and viral pathogens292-298Water Environment Research664(Original) Polymerase chain-reaction, hepatitis-a virus, labeled oligonucleotide probe, long-term/Survival, escherichia-coli, drinking-water, cryptosporidium oocysts, environmental water, beta-glucuronidase, total coliformsProCite Record Number: 1060Journal Short Form workform?%Henderson, M. C. Wallis J. L. Melnick1976JConcentration and purification of enteroviruses by membrane chromatography689-693&Applied and Environmental Microbiology325A simple procedure for the concentration and partial purification of enteroviruses from tissue culture harvests is described. After removal of acid-precipitating components with a cationic detergent, the detergent and most membrane-coating components were removed by treatment with a cationic-exchange resin. The resin effluent was then acidified, and the virus was adsorbed to epoxy-fiberglass membranes. Virus was then eluted with pH 11.5 glycine-NaOH buffer. Since this eluate contains no orgcentrated simply by acidifying the eluate and passing it through a smaller membrane than that used for the first concentration. As high as 500-fold concentrations can be achieved, with a high efficiency of recovery. ProCite Record Number: 1060Journal Short Form workform=?1Tsai, Y. L. B. Tran L. R. Sangermano C. J. Palmer1994zDetection of poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus from sewage and ocean water by triplex reverse transcriptase PCR 2400-2407&Applied and Environmental Microbiology607A triplex reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) was developed to simultaneously detect poliovirus, hepatitis A virus (HAV), and rotavirus in sewage and ocean water. Sewage and ocean water samples seeded with the three different viruses were concentrated by ultrafiltration. The unseeded ocean water and sewage samples were concentrated by vortex flow filtration and/or ultrafiltration. Random hexamers and a rotavirus downstream primer were used to initiate reverse transcription. Three different sets of primers specific for poliovirus, HAV, and rotavirus cDNAs were mixed in the PCR mixture to amplify the target DNA. Three distinct amplified DNA products representing poliovirus, HAV, and rotavirus were identified by gel electrophoresis as 394-, 192-, and 278-bp sequences, respectively. Dot blot and Southern analyses were used to confirm the amplified products for each virus present in the environmental samples. Except for poliovirus, the sensitivity of triplex RT-PCR for the detection of rotavirus and HAV was found to be similar to that of monoplex RT-PCR, which uses only one set of primers to amplify a single type of virus. The triplex RT-PCR has greater advantages over monoplex RT-PCR for virus detection, namely, the rapid turnaround time and cost effectiveness. ProCite Record Number: 1070Journal Short Form workform?Henry, F. J. R. K. Bartholomew1990]Epidemiology and transmission of rotavirus infections and diarrhoea in St. Lucia, West Indies205-212Western Indian Medical Journal394To determine the epidemiology and risk factors of rotavirus infections in St. Lucia, 229 children in three valleys with varying levels of sanitation were studied for 2 years. A four-fold rise in complement fixation antibody to rotavirus antigen was used in paired samples as evidence of recent infection. Results showed that forty-eight per cent of infants experienced at least one infection during a two-year period, and 17% of children were reinfected. Infections occurred within the first months of life and peaked between 6 and 23 months of age. The peak infection coincided with the dry season in each age group. Children breast-feeding had fewer infections. Although crowding within the home was significantly associated with repeated infection, the incidence of infection was not affected by the degree of sanitation. Other studies in the region, using recently developed techniques, concur with these findings which advance our understanding of the epidemiological importance of rotavirus in St. Lucia. Although these studies provide insights into the risk factors for rotavirus infections, other studies are required to determine whether investments should be focused on improved sanitation or immunization or both. ProCite Record Number: 1070Journal Short Form workform?:Puig, M. J. Jofre F. Lucena A. Allard G. Wadell R. Girones1994ZDetection of adenoviruses and enteroviruses in polluted waters by nested PCR amplification 2963-2970&Applied and Environmental Microbiology608A procedure has been developed for the rapid detection of enteroviruses and adenoviruses in environmental samples. Several systems for virus concentration and extraction of nucleic acid were tested by adding adenovirus type 2 and poliovirus type 1 to different sewage samples. The most promising method for virus recovery involved the concentration of viruses by centrifugation and elution of the virus pellets by treatment with 0.25 N glycine buffer, pH 9.5. Nucleic acid extraction by adsorption of RNA and DNA to silica particles was the most efficient. One aliquot of the extracted nucleic acids was used for a nested two-step PCR, with specific primers for all adenoviruses; and another aliquot was used to synthesize cDNA for a nested two-step PCR with specific primers for further detection of seeded polioviruses or all enteroviruses in the river water and sewage samples. The specificity and sensitivity were evaluated, and 24 different enterovirus strains and the 47 human adenovirus serotypes were recognized by the primers used. The sensitivity was estimated to be between 1 and 10 virus particles for each of the species tested. Twenty-five samples of sewage and polluted river water were analyzed and showed a much higher number of positive isolates by nested PCR than by tissue culture analysis. The PCR-based detection of enteroviruses and adenoviruses shows good results as an indicator of possible viral contamination in environmental wastewater. ProCite Record Number: 1080Journal Short Form workform?$Patterson, T. P. Hutchings S. Palmer1993tOutbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post-symptomatic caterer157-162Epidemiology and Infection1111In an outbreak of small round structured virus (SRSV) gastroenteritis at an international AIDS conference 67 people were ill with diarrhoea or vomiting, one requiring admission to hospital. Epidemiological investigations demonstrated that the vehicle of infection was food prepared by a foodhandler who was recovering from a mild gastrointestinal illness. The food most strongly associated with illness, coronation chicken, was prepared by the food handler on the second day after symptoms ceased. The investigation confirms the view that foodhandlers may contaminate food with SRSVs after cessation of symptoms and should remain off work until at least 48 h after recovery. ProCite Record Number: 1080Journal Short Form workformy?&Straub, T. M. I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1994Detection of naturally occurring enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus in undigested and anaerobically digested sludge using the polymerase chain reaction.884-888 Canadian Journal of Microbiology4010,Four undigested and four anaerobically digested sewage sludge samples were analyzed for enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus using seminested and double polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. For enteroviruses, all eight samples were positive when detection was by seminested PCR. Using cell culture all samples except two digested sludge samples were positive. For hepatitis A virus, seven out of eight samples were positive by PCR detection. In all samples, PCR inhibitory substances were removed by passage through Sephadex G-50 and Chelex 100 columns. Overall the PCR methodology was highly successful in identifying the presence of both viruses; however, with this methodology, there was no indication as to whether enteroviruses or hepatitis A viruses not confirmed in cell culture were infectious. ProCite Record Number: 1090Journal Short Form workformc?Monceyron, C. B. Grinde1994iDetection of hepatitis A virus in clinical and environmental samples by immunomagnetic separation and PCR157-166Journal of Virological Methods462XMagnetic beads coated with antibodies against surface epitopes of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) captured efficiently viral particles from various types of samples. Contaminating substances, including particulate material, were removed by using a magnet to retain the beads during the washing procedure. A sensitive reverse transcriptase/nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was developed to confirm the presence of viral particles on the beads. The above technique was shown to be useful for the detection of a laboratory strain of HAV added to polluted river water, sea water and fecal extracts. ProCite Record Number: 1100Journal Short Form workform? Kandela, P.1993Egypt: combating liver disease1207Lancet3418854 not availableProCite Record Number: 1100Journal Short Form workform\?3Soares, A. C. T. M. Straub I. L. Pepper C. P. Gerba1994cEffect of anaerobic digestion on the occurrence of enteroviruses and Giardia cysts in sewage sludge 1887-1897ZJournal of Environmental Science and Health Part A - Environmental Science and Engineering299ProCite Record Number: 1110Journal Short Form workform?World Health Organization1988"Outbreak of hepatitis A - Shanghai91-92Weekly Epidemiological Record13 not availableProCite Record Number: 1110Journal Short Form workform2?[Garin, D. F. Fuchs J. M. Crance Y. Rouby J. C. Chapalain D. Lamarque A. M. Gounot M. Aymard1994Exposure to enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus among divers in environmental waters in France, first biological and serological survey of a controlled cohort541-549Epidemiology and Infection1133An epidemiological study of hepatitis A and enteroviruses was conducted in a military diving training school, by evaluating the viral contamination of water using an ultrafiltration concentration technique, and assessing seroconversion and the presence of virus in stool specimens obtained from 109 divers and 48 controls. Three of 29 water specimens were positive for enterovirus by cell culture and 9 by molecular hybridization. There was little or no risk of virus infection during the training course (49 h exposure) because there was no significant difference between divers and controls for both viral isolation and seroconversion. However, a higher percentage of coxsackievirus B4 and B5 seropositive divers suggests that these were more exposed during previous water training. No hepatitis A virus (HAV) detection and no seroconversion to HAV was observed. The rate of HAV seropositive subjects was 17% in this 24.5-year-old population. ProCite Record Number: 1120Journal Short Form workform??Pfirrmann, A. G. vanden Bossche1994cOccurrence and isolation of airborne human enteroviruses from waste disposal and utilization plants38-51*Zentralblatt Fur Hygiene und Umweltmedizin1961'Aerosols from waste treatment plants were examined with regard to the presence of airborne viruses. For the purpose of a comparative evaluation, two different collecting devices consisting of an electroprecipitator and a special-impinger apparatus were used for extraction and collection of viruses from air samples. The collected suspensions were concentrated and fractionated by means of hydroextraction in combination with a differential centrifugation procedure. After solubilisation of the sedimented material with the anionic detergent, sodium-dodecylsulfate, and following ultrasonic treatment, viral infectivity could be demonstrated in 12 out of 36 examined specimens, after inoculation on BGM cells. The highest virus isolation rates were obtained with the electroprecipitator. Based on the results of investigations of biological, physicochemical as well as antigenic characteristics, the isolated strains revealed to belong to the family of Picornaviridae. According to the results of additional characterization assays, the isolates were identified as Coxsackie-B and ECHO-viruses. The linkage between the occurrence of these viruses and a possible risk of infection for humans remains to be elucidated by further epidemiological studies. However, the results of the present work indicate that, besides of an increased dust and germ concentration in such facilities, there is substantial evidence of increased viral contamination as well. Enteroviruses are generally considered as indicator viruses revealing the presence of viral contaminants in tap water and sewage. As human enteroviruses can be regularly isolated from such aerosols, the detection of these viruses in air samples may also be an appropriate criterion to estimate the amount to which virus concentrations may build up within waste treatment plants. ProCite Record Number: 1130Journal Short Form workformQ?Powelson, D. K. C. P. Gerba1994^Virus removal from sewage effluents during saturated and unsaturated flow through soil columns 2175-2181Water Research2810(Original) Reclamation of water, sewage, effluent, virus, poliovirus, bacteriophage, ms2, prd1,/removal, retardation, soil columns, transport, adsorption, transportRecharge of sewage effluents may lead to contamination of groundwater with viruses. The goal of this research was to quantify virus removal in representative subsurface transport conditions. Soil column and batch studies were conducted to evaluate how virus type, effluent type and water saturation affect virus adsorption and removal. Three viruses were used: MS2 and PRD1 bacteriophages and poliovirus type 1. In the first column study, secondary- or tertiary-treated sewage containing the viruses percolated through coarse-sand columns under unsaturated conditions. In the second column study, the viruses suspended in secondary-treated sewage percolated through the columns under saturated or unsaturated conditions. A batch adsorption study was conducted to determine equilibrium adsorption of these viruses to the sand. Effluent type had no significant effect on first-order virus removal coefficients or retardation of virus transport. Virus ''removal'' was considered to be inactivation or irreversible adsorption. Unsaturated conditions resulted in an average removal coefficient (mu(s) = 0.31 h(-1)) more than three times greater than saturated conditions (mu(s) = 0.095 h(-1)), a significant difference at the 0.01 level. Poliovirus had a greater retardation coefficient (R = 5.2) than the bacteriophages (MS2, R = 1.4; and PRD1, R = 2.2), a significant difference at the 0.001 level. Column retardations of virus transport were only 0.8-8.0% of that predicted by adsorption coefficients determined from the batch studies. Equations developed in this paper may aid in estimating virus removal during recharge of effluents if the water residence times in ponds, the vadose zone and the aquifer are known.ProCite Record Number: 1140Journal Short Form workform?Marsh, P. E. M. H. Wellington1994Phage-host interactions in soil99-107FEMS Microbiology Ecology151-2(Original) Phage ecology, soil streptomycetes, phage-host interaction, lysogeny, pseudomonas-aeruginosa, aquatic environments, escherichia-coli, bacteriophage, viruses, transduction, abundance, lysogeny, biology, ecology,Phages are abundant and ubiquitous in nature, and are therefore important components of microbial communities. They can impact on host populations in several ways, including predation and alteration of host phenotype by genetic interactions. The dynamic survival of phage populations in soil requires infective interactions with host populations which must be undergoing growth. Hence survival is limited by the activity of soil bacteria, and phage populations must adopt strategies to overcome periods of inactivity. One of the most effective strategies is the lysogenic cycle of temperate phages. It is argued here that lysogeny in soil has a distinct advantage over virulence for phage and host survival, as opposed to aquatic ecosystems where virulence seems a more successful strategy for phage populations.ProCite Record Number: 1150Journal Short Form workform^?FHuber, M. S. C. P. Gerba M. Abbaszadegan J. A. Robinson S. M. Bradford1994HStudy of persistence of enteric viruses in landfilled disposable diapers 1767-1772$Environmental Science and Technology289uHepatitis-a virus, molecular-cloning, nucleic-acid, water, cDNA, DNA, hybridization,/rotaviruses, community, survivalDisposable diapers are one of many possible sources of infectious enteric viruses that are disposed of in landfills. A total of 218 disposable diapers were collected from 7 sites and 10 depths at three landfills. Of this total, 110 diapers were selected to be processed based on fecal content using a 1.5% beef extract elution, organic flocculation-concentration method to recover viruses. The concentrated samples were assayed on Buffalo Green Monkey (BGM) kidney cell cultures for the detection of enteroviruses and with cDNA probes specific for poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and rotavirus. Enteroviruses were not detected in any sample assayed using cell culture techniques. Three samples were positive using nucleic acid probes for poliovirus while negative for rotavirus and hepatitis A. These results suggest that, although poliovirus RNA was present in some diapers, the viruses were not viable by cell culture assays after 2 years or longer in a landfill. ProCite Record Number: 1160Journal Short Form workformb?"Birkenmeyer, L. G. I. K. Mushahwar1994IDetection of hepatitis A, B, and D virus by the polymerase chain reaction101-112Journal of Virological Methods492^HAV primer; HAV probe; HBV primer; HBV probe; HDV primer; HDV probe; Polymerase chain reaction Mini-ReviewProCite Record Number: 1170Journal Short Form workformm?PApaire-Marchais, V. V. Ferre-Aubineau F. Colonna F. Dubois A. Ponge S. Billaudel1994dDevelopment of RT-semi-nested PCR for detection of hepatitis A virus in stool in epidemic conditions117-124Molecular and Cellular Probes820The purpose of this study was to determine the efficiency of semi-nested PCR in detecting hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA. During a 2-year period (1990-1991), HAV RNA was searched for in shellfish from the French Brittany coasts using cRNA and vRNA probes. In January 1992, at the time of a hepatitis A outbreak, 28 stool samples were collected from infected patients (18 adults, 10 children) with anti-HAV IgM. Four samples from subjects with negative HAV serology were used as negative controls. Nucleic acid amplification (reverse-transcription-semi-nested PCR) was performed to detect HAV in stool. HAV RNA was purified by phenol-chloroform extraction and converted to cDNA using reverse transcriptase (Mu-MLV). After amplification, PCR products were visualized on an ethidium-bromide-stained gel and confirmed by hybridization with a specific digoxigenin-labelled oligoprobe. Samples were also studied by molecular hybridization with cRNA and vRNA probes. After onset of the illness, HAV RNA was detected over a longer time period by semi-nested PCR (16/28) than by hybridization (0/28). Even though biological diagnosis of hepatitis A will continue to rely on the detection of anti-HAV IgM, PCR should be useful in certain clinical cases (diagnosis of relapse) and for epidemiological and environmental monitoring of viruses. ProCite Record Number: 1180Journal Short Form workformt?&Goswami, B. B. W. H. Koch T. A. Cebula1994RCompetitor template RNA for detection and quantitation of hepatitis A virus by PCR114-115, 118-121 BioTechniques161yPCR was used to introduce a 63-bp deletion into the putative RNA replicase coding sequence of hepatitis A virus. RNA was synthesized in vitro from the deletion mutant cloned into a transcription vector. Upon amplification by PCR, cDNA made from the competitor RNA generated an amplified fragment that could be easily distinguished from the product generated from wild-type hepatitis A virus genomic RNA by gel electrophoresis, when the same primers were used, without further manipulation. The competitor RNA was used as a positive control in PCR-based detection of very low copy numbers of hepatitis A virus genomic RNA in the presence of unrelated hard-shell clam RNA. When the competitor RNA was used for competitive PCR to quantitate wild-type RNA, the presence of one template at a 10-fold to 100-fold higher level almost completely inhibited product formation from the underrepresented template. The competitor RNA should be useful as a control for reverse transcription and PCRs to determine hepatitis A virus genome RNA when accidental contamination of test samples by a wild-type positive control template would compromise the results. ProCite Record Number: 1190Journal Short Form workform *?>Whetter, L. E. S. P. Day O. Elroystein E. A. Brown S. M. Lemon1994Low efficiency of the 5' nontranslated region of hepatitis A virus RNA in directing cap-independent translation in permissive monkey kidney cells 5253-5263Journal of Virology688 To characterize in vivo the translational control elements present in the 5' nontranslated region (5'NTR) of hepatitis A virus (HAV) RNA, we created an HAV-permissive monkey kidney cell line (BT7-H) that stably expresses T7 RNA polymerase and carries out cytoplasmic transcription of uncapped RNA from transfected DNA containing the T7 promoter. The presence of an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) within the 5'NTR of HAV was confirmed by using BT7-H cells transcribing bicistronic RNAs in which the 5'NTR was placed within the intercistronic space, controlling translation of a downstream reporter protein (bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase). However, translation directed by the 5'NTR in these bicistronic transcripts and in monocistronic T7 transcripts in which the HAV 5'NTR was placed upstream of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase coding sequence was very inefficient compared with the translation of monocistronic transcripts containing either the IRES of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus or a short nonpicornavirus 5' nontranslated leader sequence. A large deletion within the HAV IRES (delta 355-532) eliminated IRES activity in bicistronic transcripts. In contrast, larger deletions within the IRES in monocistronic transcripts (delta 1-354, delta 1-532, delta 1-633, and delta 158-633) resulted in 4- to 14-fold increases in translation. In the latter case, this was most probably due to a shift from IRES-directed translation to translation initiation by 5'-end-dependent scanning. Translation of RNAs containing either the EMC virus IRES or the nonpicornavirus leader was significantly enhanced by cotransfection of the reporter constructs with pEP2A, which directs transcription of RNA containing the EMC virus IRES fused to the poliovirus 2Apro coding region. This 2Apro enhancement of cap-independent translation suggests a greater availability of limiting cellular translation factors following 2Apro-mediated cleavage of the p220 subunit of the eukaryotic initiation factor eIF-4F and subsequent shutdown of 5' cap-dependent translation. In contrast, pEP2A cotransfection resulted in severe inhibition of translation directed by the HAV IRES in either monocistronic or bicistronic transcripts. This inhibition was due to competition from the EMC virus IRES present in pEP-2A transcripts, as well as the expression of proteolytically active 2Apro. 2Apro-mediated suppression of HAV translation was not seen with transcripts containing large deletions in the HAV IRES (delta 158-633, delta 1-532, or delta 1-633). These data suggest that the HAV IRES may have a unique requirement for intact p220 or that it may be dependent on active expression of another cellular translation factor which is normally present in severely limiting quantities. ProCite Record Number: 1200Journal Short Form workformz?Yap, K. L. S. K. Lam.1994Infectivity titration of the fast-replicating and cytopathic hepatitis A virus strain HM175A.2 by an in situ enzyme immunoassay217-226Journal of Virological Methods471-2YA simple, rapid and objective infectivity assay based on an in situ enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was developed for the fast-growing and cytopathic cell culture-adapted hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain HM175A.2. Infectivity titration by EIA correlated well with titration by cytopathic effects. The reliability of this assay was demonstrated by close agreement in virus infectivity titers among different assays of the same virus aliquot and between assays of different virus aliquots. HAV infected cell cultures after fixation could be stored for up to 1 week before testing without decline in virus titer. ProCite Record Number: 1210Journal Short Form workform/?3Bishop, N. E. D. L. Hugo S.V. Borovec D.A. Anderson1994GRapid and efficient purification of hepatitis A virus from cell culture203-216Journal of Virological Methods471-2(Hepatitis A virus (HAV) characteristically remains strongly cell-associated when grown in culture, with only small yields in the culture supernatant. Cell factories (6000 cm2) of BS-C-1 cells infected with the cytopathic HM175A.Z strain of HAV for 3, 4 or 7 days were harvested using trypsin to disperse the infected cell monolayer, and cells were collected by low speed centrifugation. More than 70% of the yield of virus and viral antigen can thus be obtained in the packed cell pellet. Packed cell pellets were resuspended in 5 volumes of isotonic buffer and cell membranes lysed by the addition of a non-ionic detergent. After removal of nuclei by centrifugation, ionic detergent was added to the clarified cytoplasmic extract. Under these conditions, HAV particles (virions and empty capsids) are the only particulate material remaining in the sample, and were recovered in a single ultracentrifugation step through discontinuous sucrose/glycerol density gradients. In one day, this method yields viral antigen with minimal cellular contaminants, in a concentrated volume suitable for subsequent biochemical, vaccine or diagnostic uses. The yield of viral antigen over numerous batches varied from 200 to 1600 vaccine-equivalent doses per cell factory, with a titre of up to 1 x 10(10) infectious particles per ml. ProCite Record Number: 1220Journal Short Form workform?=Buisson, Y. P. Coursaget R. Bercion D. Anne T. Debord R. Roue1994?Hepatitis E virus infection in soldiers sent to endemic regions 1165-1166Lancet3448930LetterProCite Record Number: 1240Journal Short Form workform?uPujol, F. H. M. O. Favorov T. Marcano J. A. Este M. Magris F. Liprandi Y. E. Khudyakov N. S. Khyudyakova H. A. Fields1994aPrevalence of antibodies against Hepatitis E Virus among urban and rural populations in Venezuela234-236Journal of Medical Virology4234Antibodies against hepatitis E virus (HEV) were detected in sera by a synthetic peptide-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from different populations in Venezuela. Antibodies against HEV were found in 1.6% (3/184) of urban pregnant woman (Caracas), in 3.9% (8/204) of rural populations (San Camilo, Edo Apure), and in 5.4% (12/223) of rural Amerindians (Padamo, Edo Amazonas). Positivity was confirmed by a neutralization EIA based on the use of competing soluble free peptides. The prevalence of antibodies in the Amerindian group was significantly higher than in urban pregnant women. No relation was found between age and HEV prevalence in rural populations. Three of 21 positive sera were also weakly positive by Western blot for IgM antibodies. This result, together with the low optical density values observed by EIA, suggested that the presence of antibodies in these sera reflects past infections. Based on these results, Venezuela does not seem to be highly endemic for hepatitis E. This is the first report of serological evidence of infection by HEV in South America. ProCite Record Number: 1250Journal Short Form workform?CGraham, D. Y. X. Jiang T. Tanaka A.R. Opekun H.P. Madore M.K. Estes1994MNorwalk virus infection of volunteers: New insights based on improved assays34-43Journal of Infectious Diseases1701Norwalk virus infection is a common cause of gastroenteritis in humans. The clinical features and virologic and immunologic responses following oral administration of Norwalk virus to 50 volunteers were monitored. New ELISAs using recombinant virus particles as the antigen source were used to assess the pattern of virus shedding and the specific immune responses. Forty-one subjects (82%) became infected; 68% were symptomatic and 32% were asymptomatic. The proportion of subjects infected was similar for those with and without preexisting antibody (82% vs. 60%; P > .2). The magnitude of seroconversion was highest in subjects who had vomiting. The peak of viral shedding was between 25 and 72 h, and virus first appeared in stool at 15 h. Specimens collected 7 days after inoculation remained positive. These results show a higher infection rate, more subclinical infections, and longer virus excretion following Norwalk virus inoculation than previously recognized. ProCite Record Number: 1260Journal Short Form workform:?FGray, J. J. C. Cunliffe J. Ball D.Y. Graham U. Desselberger M.K. Estes1994Detection of immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG Norwalk virus-specific antibodies by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with baculovirus-expressed Norwalk virus capsid antigen in adult volunteers challenged with Norwalk virus 3059-3063 Journal of Clinical Microbiology3212yPre- and postexposure sera collected from 17 adult volunteers challenged with Norwalk virus as described previously (D. Y. Graham, X. Jiang, T. Tanaka, A. Opekun, P. Madore, and M. K. Estes, J. Infect. Dis. 170:34-43, 1994) were examined for Norwalk virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with recombinant Norwalk virus antigen bound to the solid phase. Sixteen of the 17 volunteers had evidence of past infection, all presenting with preexisting IgG antibody of high avidity; only one volunteer had no evidence of previous infection. Virus infection was detected in 14 of the 16 volunteers with evidence of past infection, and 9 of the infected volunteers had symptomatic illness. A significant rise in both virus-specific IgA and IgG titers was detected after challenge in all of the volunteers who became ill. Five of the asymptomatic volunteers who were infected had rising titers of virus-specific IgG, but only two of the five had a concomitant rise in their virus-specific IgA antibody titers. Antibody rises were detectable in eight of nine ill volunteers 8 to 11 days after challenge but in the asymptomatic volunteers only after more than 15 days had elapsed. Virus-specific IgM was detected after challenge in all 14 infected volunteers. Between symptomatic and asymptomatic volunteers there were no significant differences in titers of virus-specific IgG and IgA in serum before challenge; however, there were significantly higher titers in symptomatic volunteers between 8 and > 90 days after challenge for virus-specific IgG and 8 and 24 days after challenge for virus-specific IgA. ProCite Record Number: 1270Journal Short Form workform~?:Lew, J. F. A. Z. Kapikian X. Jiang M. K. Estes K. Y. Green1994Molecular characterization and expression of the capsid protein of a Norwalk-like virus recovered from a desert shield troop with gastroenteritis319-325Virology2001=Norwalk virus (NV) infection was recently found to be associated with gastroenteritis in U.S. military troops stationed in Saudi Arabia during the 1990 Desert Shield Operation. We identified a Norwalk-like virus in the stools of two military personnel with gastroenteritis by ELISA and IEM. By RT-PCR and sequence analysis, the nucleotide sequence of part of the polymerase region of each of these two "Desert Shield" strains (DSV275 and DSV395) was found to be 73% identical to the corresponding region of NV. In addition, one of the strains (DSV395), which underwent sequence analysis of approximately 2900 consecutive bases, had a genomic organization characteristic of the Caliciviridae. Comparison of the DSV395 amino acid sequence of the capsid region with that of three other viruses in the Norwalk group (Norwalk, Southampton, and Toronto viruses) showed amino acid identity of 47-68%. Consensus sequence analysis of these capsid proteins identified two regions of conserved amino acids that flanked an area of variable amino acids. In addition, the proteins corresponding to the capsid regions of DSV395 and NV were expressed in an in vitro translation system. Immunoprecipitation studies using the expressed capsid proteins and paired DSV395 or NV infection sera indicated the presence of shared antigenic sites between the capsid proteins of DSV395 and NV. However, hyperimmune sera specific for the self-assembled recombinant NV capsid protein did not react with DSV stool antigen in an ELISA, suggesting that there may also be unique antigenic sites not shared between DSV395 and NV. ProCite Record Number: 1280Journal Short Form workform)?2Lew, J. F. A. Z. Kapikian J. Valdesuso K. Y. Green1994Molecular characterization of Hawaii virus and other Norwalk-like viruses: evidence for genetic polymorphism among human caliciviruses535-542Journal of Infectious Diseases1703Hawaii virus (HV), from a 1971 family outbreak of gastroenteritis, is serotypically distinct from Norwalk virus (NV), recently identified as a human calicivirus by molecular analysis. About 2600 consecutive nucleotides of the HV genome (including those encoding the viral capsid protein) and part of the polymerase region of three other viruses (MDV1, MDV6 and SV7) were sequenced. Comparison of the amino acid sequence of the capsid protein of HV with NV and other human caliciviruses (Toronto virus [TV24], Desert Shield virus [DSV395], and Southampton virus [SHV]) demonstrated the existence of two major genetic groups (genogroups) typified by HV and NV. HV had 76% identity with TV24 and 48% identity with NV, DSV395, or SHV. In addition, comparison of part of the polymerase protein of HV with other human caliciviruses also showed that there were these two genogroups. The large genetic diversity between the capsid sequence of HV and NV is consistent with their serotypic distinctiveness. ProCite Record Number: 1310Journal Short Form workform??pWang, J. X. X. Jiang H. P. Madore J. Gray U. Desselberger T. Ando Y. Seto I. Oishi J. F. Lew K.Y. Green M. Estes1994PSequence diversity of small, round-structured viruses in the Norwalk virus group 5982-5990Journal of Virology689ProCite Record Number: 1320Journal Short Form workformk?CCromeans, T. O. V. Nainan H. A. Fields M. O. Favorov H. S. Margolis1994Hepatitis A and E Viruses1-56TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi27Hui, Y. H. J. R. Gorham K. D. Murrell, D. O. Cliver Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1330Book Long Form workform? Cliver, D. O.1994)Viral foodborne disease agents of concern176-178Journal of Food Protection572Viruses transmitted to humans via foods generally emanate from the human intestines. In the United States, Norwalk virus ranked #5, hepatitis A virus #6, and ''other viruses'' (principally rotavirus) #10 among the top 10 causes of foodborne disease during 1983-1987. Molluscs are the most frequently reported vehicles, but any food handled by humans may transmit human enteric viruses. Some fruit and vegetable vehicles may have been contaminated in the field before or during harvesting. Viruses in foods may be inactivated before the food is eaten, and thus, not cause infection. Increasingly sensitive detection methods, largely based on ''molecular'' techniques, are becoming available for these viruses but are not applicable to monitoring foods on a routine basis.ProCite Record Number: 1330Journal Short Form workformi? Appleton, H.1994KNorwalk Virus and the Small Round Viruses Causing Foodborne Gastroenteritis57-79TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1350Book Long Form workformE?-Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Ansari1994 Rotavirus81-111TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi9Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1360Book Long Form workform9?Grešiková, M.1994Tickborne encephalitis113-135TFoodborne disease handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases caused by viruses, parasites, and fungi235Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1370Book Long Form workform?? Cliver, D. O.1994Other Foodborne Viral Diseases137-143TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1380Book Long Form workformf?Matsui, S. M. H. B. Greenberg19945Medical Management of Foodborne Viral Gastroenteritis145-158TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1390Book Long Form workformB? Cliver, D. O.1994!Epidemiology of Foodborne Viruses159-175TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1400Book Long Form workform?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1984]A broad-spectrum enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of human enteric viruses87-98J. Virol. Methods81-2An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test has been devised for detection of a broad spectrum of human enteric viruses, based on the use of poly-L-lysine as a nonspecific adhesive to hold the virus particles in the test wells and of pooled human immune serum globulin to mark the virus for detection with commercial goat anti-human IgG antibody conjugated with horseradish peroxidase. Detection of five human enteroviruses and a reovirus at levels of 10 most probable number of cytopathogenic units (MPNCU) to 10 PFU per well was achieved, whereas no reaction was seen with two porcine enteroviruses. When two virus types are present in a sample, the ELISA reactions augment each other.ProCite Record Number: 1400Journal Short Form workform9?Herrmann, J. E.1994Laboratory Methodology177-197TFoodborne Disease Handbook: Vol. 2. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites, and Fungi29Hui, Y. H. Gorham, J. R. Murrell, K. D. Cliver, D. O. Ed.New YorkMarcel Dekker, Inc.ProCite Record Number: 1410Book Long Form workform?Cliver, D. O. J. Grindrod1969)Surveillance methods for viruses in foods421-425J. Milk Food Technol.3211 not availableProCite Record Number: 1450Journal Short Form workform?Tartera, C. J. Jofre1987LBacteriophages active against Bacteroides fragilis in sewage-polluted waters 1632-1637&Applied and Environmental Microbiology537Twelve strains of different Bacteroides species were tested for their efficiency of detection of bacteriophages from sewage. The host range of several isolated phages was investigated. The results indicated that there was a high degree of strain specificity. Then, by using Bacteroides fragilis HSP 40 as the host, which proved to be the most efficient for the detection of phages, feces from humans and several animal species and raw sewage, river water, water from lagoons, seawater, groundwater, and sediments were tested for the presence of bacteriophages that were active against B. fragilis HSP 40. Phages were detected in feces of 10% of the human fecal samples tested and was never detected in feces of the other animal species studied. Moreover, bacteriophages were always recovered from sewage and sewage-polluted samples of waters and sediments, but not from nonpolluted samples. The titers recovered were dependent on the degree of pollution in analyzed waters and sediments. ProCite Record Number: 1510Journal Short Form workform? Schell, W.19898Foodborne and waterborne disease surveillance, 1978-19888-11Wisconsin Epidemiology Bulletin112ProCite Record Number: 1600Journal Short Form workform?Gordon, S. M. L. S. Oshiro W. R. Jarvis D. Donenfeld M. S. Ho F. Taylor H. B. Greenberg R. Glass H. P. Madore R. Dolin O. Tablan1990nFoodborne Snow Mountain agent gastroenteritis with secondary person-to-person spread in a retirement community702-710!American Journal of Epidemiology1314xA variety of small round-structured viruses are being recognized with increasing frequency as a cause of gastroenteritis in the community, but have rarely been reported to cause outbreaks in hospitals or extended-care facilities. From March 20 through April 15, 1988, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred in a retirement facility in the San Francisco Bay area. Illness was characterized by diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting; two residents died. Attack rates were 46% (155 of 336) in residents and 37% (28 of 75) in employees. During the initial outbreak period, illness among residents was associated with two shrimp meals served in the facility dining hall (odds ratio = 6.7). Person-to-person transmission probably occurred: The risk of becoming ill one or two days after a roommate became ill was significantly greater than that of becoming ill at other times during the outbreak (risk ratio = 6.5). Microbiologic examinations for bacterial and parasitic enteric pathogens were negative; however, 27-nm viral particles were detected by immune electron microscopy and by blocking enzyme immunoassay to Snow Mountain agent in stools obtained at the onset of illness from one of six ill residents. Seroconversion (greater than fourfold antibody rise) to Snow Mountain agent was detected in acute- and convalescent-phase serum specimens from five of six ill residents as measured by enzyme immunoassay, but not for Norwalk agent as measured by radioimmunoassay. This report of an outbreak of Snow Mountain agent gastroenteritis in an extended-care facility documents that these difficult-to-identify 27-nm viruses can cause outbreaks in inpatient settings. ProCite Record Number: 1610Journal Short Form workform?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1990CFoodborne hepatitis A - Alaska, Florida, North Carolina, Washington228-232%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report3914ProCite Record Number: 1620Journal Short Form workform?/Paton, J. H. J. A. Sorell M. K. Wall E. O. Caul1990]Large outbreak of foodborne Norwalk-type viral gastroenteritis in a district general hospital3-4#Communicable Disease Report, London9015ProCite Record Number: 1630Journal Short Form workform?2Sharp, J. C. M. P. W. Collier G. I. Forbes C. Dunn19903Surveillance of foodborne disease in Scotland, 19887,Communicable Disease Weekly Report, Scotland906ProCite Record Number: 1640Journal Short Form workform? Brydone, T. J. J. Adams G. Smith1990+Beaters on the run -the pheasant's revenge?6-9,Communicable Disease Weekly Report, Scotland9043ProCite Record Number: 1650Journal Short Form workform/?dMele, A. M. G. Rastelli O. N. Gill D. Di Bisceglie F. Rosmini G. Pardelli C. Valtriani P. Patriarchi1990Recurrent epidemic hepatitis A associated with consumption of raw shellfish, probably controlled through public health measures540-546!Americian Journal of Epidemiology1303L(Original) Food contamination, hepatitis A, retrospective studies, shellfishmBetween April 1984 and January 1985, in the Italian seaport of Livorno, the annual incidence of serologically confirmed acute hepatitis A doubled to 46 per 100,000 population. The exposure histories of each of 75 jaundiced subjects with serologically confirmed hepatitis A were compared with up to four, randomly chosen-, age-, sex-, and neighborhood-matched controls. Illness was strongly associated with consumption of raw mussels and clams within six weeks of onset of illness. When the two thirds of the subjects who had been exposed were classified according to the frequency with which they had recently consumed any type of raw shellfish, there was a clear dose-response relation. In February 1985, comprehensive control measures were introduced and the annual incidence of hepatitis A fell to 2.3 per 100,000 population, a 10-fold decrease from the preepidemic period. ProCite Record Number: 1660Journal Short Form workform?OStroffolini, T. W. Biagini L. Lorenzoni G. P. Palazzesi M. Divizia R. Frongillo1990;An outbreak of hepatitis A in young adults in central Italy156-159 European Journal of Epidemiology62Between September, 1988 and January, 1989 a common source outbreak of 47 cases of serologically confirmed hepatitis A occurred in a town of central Italy. Thirty-eight cases were primary, three co-primary and six secondary. The highest age-specific attack rate was seen in subjects aged 15-24 years (120 per 100,000); the mean age of cases was 24.6 years and the median age was 22 years. A matched triplet case-control study showed significant association between the disease and consumption of either raw mussels (41% of cases, compared with 10% of controls; P less than 0.0001) or a single brand of mineral water (63% of cases, compared with 41% of controls; P less than 0.05). The mean age of the cases reflects the shift in primary susceptibility to the infection from younger to older age groups, a finding which has recently been demonstrated by several seroepidemiological surveys in Italy. ProCite Record Number: 1670Journal Short Form workform?Ramsay, C. N. P. A. Upton1989"Hepatitis A and frozen raspberries43-44Lancet1 notavailableProCite Record Number: 1670Journal Short Form workformF? Anonymous19905Food poisoning outbreak linked to Sydney rock oystersZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe3ProCite Record Number: 1680Journal Short Form workformT?Reid, T. M. H. G. Robinson1987"Frozen raspberries and hepatitis A109-112Epidemiology and Infection981An outbreak of 24 cases of hepatitis A in Aberdeen was traced to a large hotel in the city by epidemiological investigation. Food-specific questioning of those affected, their fellow diners and hotel staff, coupled with serological studies, implicated raspberry mousse prepared from frozen raspberries as the source of the infection. The raspberries were probably contaminated at the time of picking. ProCite Record Number: 1680Journal Short Form workform?5Bemiss, J. A. M. M. Logan J. D. Sample G. P. Richards1990JA method for the enumeration of poliovirus in selected molluscan shellfish209-218Journal of Virological Methods26ProCite Record Number: 1690Journal Short Form workform?%Jehl-Pietri, C. B. Hugues R. Deloince1990iViral and bacterial contamination of mussels (Mytilus edulis) exposed in an unpolluted marine environment126-129Letters in Applied Microbiology113jBacterial indicating faecal contamination, cell-culturable enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were investigated in sea-water and in mussels exposed in an unpolluted marine environment, over a 7-month period with two samplings per month. Of the 16 mussel samples examined, none contained cell-culturable enteroviruses, four showed a low-level contamination by HAV and two did not conform to the current bacteriological norms. No conection was observed between the viral and bacterial contamination. No viral contamination was detected in the sea-water samples, but two gave bacterial counts above current norms. ProCite Record Number: 1700Journal Short Form workform=?7Grabow, W. O. K. G. K. Idema P. Coubrough B. W. Bateman1989SSelection of indicator systems for human viruses in polluted seawater and shellfish111-117Water Science and Technology213z(Original) Marine pollution, viruses, indicators, quality criteria, shellish, wastewater, health risk, bathing, infectionsA total of 610 samples of marine sewage discharges, polluted seawater and shellfish have been analysed for human enteric viruses and indicators of faecal/sewage pollution. Viruses were recovered by ultrafiltration from water samples of up to 10 liters, and by extraction from 50g samples of shellfish meat. Detection of viruses was by cytopathogenic effect in primary vervet kidney cells. Some samples were tested for rota- and hepatitis A virus antigens using immunosorbent assays. Of the 202 samples from which viruses were cultured, 45% yielded enteroviruses and 87% reoviruses. The ratio of counts of viruses and indicators varied extensively in samples of both seawater and shellfish. Viruses or their antigens were detected in a number of samples which yielded negative results in conventional tests for at least one indicator. The results show that currently used quality criteria based on coliform indicators have shortcomings with regard to viruses. These findings, as well as experience and policies in other parts of the world, were applied in formulating revised quality criteria for seawater used for recreational purposes, and shellfish meat intended for human comsumption. The recommended criteria include limits for human viruses, faecal coliform bacteria, faecal streptococci and coliphages. The test methods used in conjunction with these criteria are considered important, and methods for viruses should be able to detect reoviruses.ProCite Record Number: 1710Journal Short Form workform ?Power, U. F. and J. K. Collins1990fTissue distribution of a coliphage and Escherichia coli in mussels after contamination and depuration.803-807&Applied and Environmental Microbiology563Experiments were undertaken to determine the tissue distribution of Escherichia coli and a coliphage after contamination of the common mussel (Mytilus edulis). Mussels were contaminated with high levels of feces-associated E. coli and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage over a 2-day period in a flowing-seawater facility. After contamination, individual tissues were carefully dissected and assayed for E. coli and the coliphage. Contaminated mussels were also analyzed to determine the tissue distribution of the contaminants after 24- and 48-h depuration periods. The majority of each contaminant was located in the digestive tract (94 and 89% of E. coli and coliphage, respectively). Decreasing concentrations were found in the gills and labial palps, foot and muscles, mantle lobes, and hemolymph. Our results indicate that contamination above levels in water occurred only in the digestive tract. Contaminated mussels were depurated in a commercial-scale recirculating UV depuration system over a 48-h period. The percent reductions of E. coli occurred in the following order: digestive tract, hemolymph, foot and muscles, mantle lobes, and gills and labial palps. The percent reductions of the coliphage were different, occurring in the following order: hemolymph, foot and muscles, gills and labial palps, mantle lobes, and digestive tract. Our results clearly demonstrate that E. coli and the coliphage are differentially eliminated from the digestive tract. The two microorganisms are eliminated at similar rates from the remaining tissues. Our results also clearly show that the most significant coliphage retention after depuration for 48 h is in the digestive tract. Thus, conventional depuration practices are inappropriate for efficient virus elimination from mussels. ProCite Record Number: 1720Journal Short Form workform~?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1990Elimination of coliphages and Escherichia coli from mussels during depuration under varying conditions of temperature, salinity, and food availability 208-212, 226Journal of Food Protection533BStudies were undertaken to determine the effect of temperature, salinity, and food availability on the efficiencies of elimination of Escherichia coli and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage from experimentally contaminated mussels. Test temperatures (5.5, 10, 16.5ºC) and salinities (18.2, 28.6 ppt) reflected normal seasonal fluctuations during routine commercial depuration. The initial E. coli levels were reduced by >99% within 52 at all temperatures. In contrast, efficient coliphage elimination occurred at 16.5ºC only. The initial E.coli levels were reduced by >99% at both salinities, while coliphage elimination was relatively inefficient under similar conditions. In unfiltered seawater, the addition or omission of food, in the form of Tetraselmis suecica, had no appreciable effect on either E. coli or coliphage elimination from mussels. In filter-clarified seawater, E. coli elimination was more efficient and coliphage elimination was considerably enhanced when food was added. In the absence of food, coliphage elimination was very inefficient. The results of these studies indicate that bacterial elimination from mussels during depuration is efficient through the range of parameters used. In contrast, coliphage elimination was generally inefficient throughout the study, suggesting that depuration, as currently practiced, cannot be relied upon to render mussels completely free of virial contaimiation. These studies emphasize that successful bacterial depuration does not reflect viral elimintion and therefore, bacterial standards for efficient depuration of viruses are unreliable.ProCite Record Number: 1730Journal Short Form workform?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1989kThe production of microbiologically safe shellfish - lessons from the classification of shellfish at source124-130Environment and Health975ProCite Record Number: 1750Journal Short Form workformk? Farkas, J.1989*Microbiological safety of irradiated foods1-15*International Journal of Food Microbiology91ReviewThis paper attempts to summarize relevant information on microbiological safety of irradiated foods in the light of previous reports of expert committees and current literature references. After a brief survey of the relative radiation resistance of food-borne microorganisms, the importance of microbial load for dose requirement, and the role of post-irradiation conditions, it addresses the following questions: Could selective changes in the microflora, caused by non-sterilizing radiation doses, make known pathogens more likely to occur, or bring into prominence unfamiliar pathogens? Is it probable that 'mutational' (including adaptive) changes might make pathogens more virulent, more harmful, or more difficult to recognize, and could new pathogens arise in this way? Is it possible that development of radiation-resistant strains might render the antimicrobial irradiation processes ineffective? The present survey of relevant scientific evidence related to these questions reaffirms the basic conclusion of earlier reviews, that microbiological safety of irradiated food is fully comparable with that of foods preserved by other acceptable preservation methods. Similar to other preservation processes, gains in microbiological or keeping quality attained by food irradiation can be and must be safeguarded by proper control in the food irradiation facilities and by proper care of the product before and after processing. ProCite Record Number: 1760Journal Short Form workforml?*Levine, W. C. W. T. Stephenson G. F. Craun1990'Waterborne disease outbreaks, 1986-19881-13%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report391From 1986 to 1988, 24 states and Puerto Rico reported 50 outbreaks of illness due to water that people intended to drink, affecting 25,846 persons. The protozoal parasite Giardia lamblia was the agent most commonly implicated in outbreaks, as it has been for the last 10 years; many of these outbreaks were associated with ingestion of chlorinated but unfiltered surface water. Shigella sonnei was the most commonly implicated bacterial pathogen; in outbreaks caused by this pathogen, water supplies were found to be contaminated with human waste. Cryptosporidium contamination of a chlorinated, filtered public water supply caused the largest outbreak during this period, affecting an estimated 13,000 persons. A large multistate outbreak caused by commercially produced ice made from contaminated well water caused illness with Norwalk-like virus among an estimated 5,000 persons. The first reported outbreak of chronic diarrhea of unknown cause associated with drinking untreated well water occurred in 1987. Twenty-six outbreaks due to recreational water use were also reported, including outbreaks of Pseudomonas dermatitis associated with the use of hot tubs or whirlpools, and swimming-associated shigellosis, giardiasis, and viral illness. Although the total number of reported water-related outbreaks has been declining in recent years, the few large outbreaks due to Cryptosporidium, Norwalk-like agent, Shigella sonnei, and Giardia lamblia caused more cases of illness in 1987 than have been reported to the Water-Related Disease Outbreak Surveillance System for any other year since CDC and the Environmental Protection Agency began tabulating these data in 1971. ProCite Record Number: 1770Journal Short Form workform?wBloch, A. B. S. L. Stramer J. D. Smith H. S. Margolis H. A. Fields T. W. McKinley C. P. Gerba J. E. Maynard R. K. Sikes1990iRecovery of hepatitis A virus from a water supply responsible for a common source outbreak of hepatitis A428-430!American Journal of Public Health804-An outbreak of hepatitis A occurred in a north Georgia trailer park served by a private well. Of 18 residents who were serosusceptible to hepatitis A virus (HAV), 16 (89%) developed hepatitis A. Well water samples were collected 3 months after illness onset in the index case and 28 days after illness onset in the last trailer park resident. Hepatitis A virus antigen (HAVAg) was detected in the samples by enzyme immunoassay from three of the five cell lines following two 30-day passages and from a fourth cell line following a third passage of 21 days. ProCite Record Number: 1780Journal Short Form workform?aVelazquez, O. H. C. Stetler C. Aila G. Ornelas C. Alvarez S. C. Hadler D. W. Bradley J. Sepulveda1990\Epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Mexico, 1986-1987 3281-3285+Journal of the American Medical Association26324XOutbreaks of acute hepatitis occurred in Huitzililla and Telixtac, two rural villages 70 miles south of Mexico City, Mexico, in late 1986. The first outbreak began in Huitzililla in June of that year, 1 month after the start of the rainy season. A census revealed 94 icteric case subjects, for an attack rate of 5%; two women died. Attack rates were higher for persons older than 15 years (10%) than for younger persons. A case-control study showed that illness was highly associated with water-related factors. The second outbreak began in August 1986 in Telixtac. There were 129 case subjects, for an attack rate of 6%; one woman died. Epidemiologic findings were similar to those in Huitzililla, except that most disease transmission was not linked to unsafe water sources. None of 62 case subjects in Huitzililla and only 2 of 53 case subjects in Telixtac tested had serological evidence for recent infection with hepatitis A or B. Two of eight stool samples from Huitzililla and one of the eight stool samples from Telixtac were positive by immune electron microscopy for 32- to 34-nm viruslike particles similar to those seen in cases of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis from Asia. To our knowledge, these investigations document for the first time the epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis virus in the Americas. ProCite Record Number: 1790Journal Short Form workformy?5Payment, P. A. Berube D. Perreault R. Armon M. Trudel1989Concentration of Giardia lamblia cysts, Legionella pneumophila, Clostridium perfringens, human enteric viruses, and coliphages from large volumes of drinking water, using a single filtration932-935 Canadian Journal of Microbiology35Poliovirus, coliphages, Giardia lamblia cysts, Clostridium perfringens spores, and Legionella pneumophila were concentrated simultaneously in a single pass by sequential filtration of large volumes of drinking water through 3- and 1-micron wound electronegative fiberglass cartridge filters (25.4 cm). Filtration was performed under acidic conditions (pH 3.5) in the presence of 0.001 M aluminum chloride to enhance adsorption. Elution of all the microorganisms entrapped or adsorbed to the filters was obtained by a slow backwash elution with a 1.5% beef extract solution, pH 9.75, containing 0.5% Tween 80. Tween 80 was shown to enhance recovery of the bacteriophages, bacteria, and parasites. Giardia cysts were efficiently eluted (71%) and could be reconcentrated by low-speed centrifugation and purified by sucrose density gradient flotation at a final recovery of 52%. Legionella pneumophila cells were eluted at 64% and were further concentrated by low-speed centrifugation at an overall recovery of 55%. C. perfringens spores and coliphages were eluted at efficiencies of 82 and 86%, respectively, and reconcentrated with minimal loss by a detergent - protein flotation method. Poliovirus was eluted at 93% and reconcentrated at 78% efficiency by organic flocculation. ProCite Record Number: 1800Journal Short Form workform#?!Geldenhuys, J. C. P. D. Pretorius1989|The occurrence of enteric viruses in polluted water, correlation to indicator organims and factors influencing their numbers105-109Water Science and Technology213ProCite Record Number: 1810Journal Short Form workform?0Walter, R. R. Dumke J. Durkop S. Guyer U. Kramer1990.Virological investigations of the River Danube333-343Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol.18ProCite Record Number: 1820Journal Short Form workform?O'Keefe, B. J. Green1989_Coliphages as indicator of faecal pollution at three recreational beaches on the Firth of Forth 1027-1030Water Research238ProCite Record Number: 1830Journal Short Form workform?Skilton, H. D. Wheeler1989DThe application of bacteriophage as tracers of chalk aquifer systems549-557Journal of Applied Bacteriology66ProCite Record Number: 1840Journal Short Form workform$?*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1990kProtection against viral hepatitis: Recommendations of the immunization practices advisory committee (ACIP)1-26%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report39RR-2ProCite Record Number: 1850Journal Short Form workform?-Mbithi, J. N. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Sattar1990DChemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces 3601-3604&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5611Hepatitis A virus disinfection was assessed on contaminated stainless-steel disks. Ten microliters of fecally suspended hepatitis A virus was deposited on the center of each disk, dried for 20 min, and then covered with 20 microliters of the test product for 1 min. Of the 20 formulations tested, only 2% glutaraldehyde, a quaternary ammonium formulation containing 23% HCl (toilet bowl cleaner), and sodium hypochlorite (greater than 5,000 ppm [greater than 5,000 micrograms/ml] of free chlorine) reduced the virus titer by greater than 99.9%; phenolics, iodine-based products, alcohols, and solutions of acetic, peracetic, citric, and phosphoric acids were unable to do so. ProCite Record Number: 1860Journal Short Form workformc?cSharma, M. D. P. Maillard S. Vrati R. Mukherjee M. S. Rajagopalan T. Poynard G. P. Talwar J. Pillot1990sSerial passage of West-European sporadic non-A non-B hepatitis in rhesus monkeys by inoculation with fecal extracts36-41Journal of Medical Virology301An experimental model of sporadic non-A non-B hepatitis involving a Fab nonimmune binding activity in stools was established in the rhesus monkey. The first animal was inoculated intravenously with a stool extract from a French patient who had never left the country and in whom post-transfusion hepatitis was excluded. Four passages were performed, and the infection was transmitted by parenteral as well as the oral routes by inoculation of stools or liver extracts. Infection led in three monkeys to reversible hepatocyte injury manifested by a transitory increase in serum aminotransferases. The other three animals, in which persistently high levels of aminotransferases was observed, were sacrificed on day 60 after inoculation. The incubation period, as evidenced by elevation of aminotransferases was about 3 to 4 weeks. The infectious agent was transitorily present in the stools before aminotransferase elevation. The presence of the infectious agent in the stools was correlated with the nonimmune Fab binding activity. ProCite Record Number: 1870Journal Short Form workform? Lewis, D. C.1990\Three serotypes of Norwalk-like virus demonstrated by solid-phase immune electron microscopy77-81Journal of Medical Virology301Solid phase immune electron microscopy (SPIEM) was used to investigate the serological differences between Norwalk-like virus (NLV) strains from five different outbreaks within the United Kingdom. The existence of two previously demonstrated serotypes, Lewis et al. (Journal of Clinical Microbiology 26:938-942, 1988), was confirmed by the use of whole convalescent sera and purified IgM. A third serotype was found to be the agent of two recent hospital outbreaks and could similarly be typed by use of whole sera or pure IgM. Paired sera were available for two of the three serotypes and demonstrated rising antibody levels. These antibody rises were also specific for the infecting serotype. However, two serum pairs from a later outbreak gave antibody rises to all three serotypes, although much higher counts were produced with the infecting serotype. SPIEM is a useful method for distinguishing NLV serotypes and can also be used to detect specific IgM and to demonstrate seroconversion. Cross-reacting antibodies, possibly anamnestic in origin, can occur after natural infection and could cause confusion in typing virus unless further evidence of the identity of the infecting agent is obtained. ProCite Record Number: 1890Journal Short Form workform?XMatsumoto, K. M. Hatano K. Kobayashi A. Hasegawa S. Yamazaki S. Nakata S. Ciba Y. Kimura1989ZAn outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with acute rotaviral infection in schoolchildren611-615Journal of Infectious Diseases1604\In April 1988 a large outbreak of group C rotavirus infection associated with acute gastroenteritis occurred among schoolchildren and their teachers simultaneously at seven elementary schools in Fukui city, Japan. Of 3,102, 675 (21.8%) became ill. Clinical symptoms were mild, predominantly abdominal pain and vomiting, with diarrhea reported in only 27.6%. The outbreak subsided within 2 d. No pathogenic bacteria were found in fecal specimens; the virus particles detected by electron microscopy were morphologically indistinguishable from conventional infantile rotavirus. Immune electron microscopy showed that these virions formed large aggregates with convalescent serum and with the reference serum specific to group C rotavirus. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed similar RNA patterns for virus from this outbreak and typical group C rotavirus. ProCite Record Number: 1910Journal Short Form workform? ZWard, R. L. D. I. Bernstein R. Shukla M. M. McNeal J. R. Sherwood E. C. Young G. M. Schiff19908Protection of adults rechallenged with a human rotavirus440-445Journal of Infectious Diseases1613Previous studies of adults challenged with human rotavirus (CJN strain) showed that 74% became infected and 55% of those infected experienced illness. Protection against infection correlated with rotavirus antibody, most significantly (P = .005) serum rotavirus IgG. In this study, 20 previously challenged subjects were reinoculated with the same virus 9-12 months after their initial challenge. Only 1 of 8 subjects not infected after the initial challenge and 2 of 12 infected after the first inoculation became infected after reinoculation; none became ill. Titers of rotavirus antibodies (serum, jejunal, and stool) at the time of reinoculation were about as high as or higher than they were before the initial inoculation. This correlated with greater protection, but the extent of protection was significantly greater (P less than .0001) than predicted based on a previous model relating protection and preinoculation titers of serum rotavirus IgG. Thus, inoculation with human rotavirus provided homotypic protection for at least 9-12 months, and protection remained correlated with higher concentrations of rotavirus antibody. However, the specific relationship between protection and rotavirus antibody was altered after the initial inoculation. ProCite Record Number: 1920Journal Short Form workform? -Jiang, X. D. Y. Graham K. N. Wang M. K. Estes19901Norwalk virus genome cloning and characterization 1580-1583Science2504987Major epidemic outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis result from infections with Norwalk or Norwalk-like viruses. Virus purified from stool specimens of volunteers experimentally infected with Norwalk virus was used to construct recombinant complementary DNA (cDNA) and derive clones representing most of the viral genome. The specificity of the clones was shown by their hybridization with post- (but not pre-) infection stool samples from volunteers infected with Norwalk virus and with purified Norwalk virus. A correlation was observed between the appearance of hybridization signals in stool samples and clinical symptoms of acute gastroenteritis in volunteers. Hybridization assays between overlapping clones, restriction enzyme analyses, and partial nucleotide sequence information of the clones indicated that Norwalk virus contains a single-stranded RNA genome of positive sense, with a polyadenylated tail at the 3' end and a size of at least 7.5 kilobases. A consensus amino acid sequence motif typical of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases was identified in one of the Norwalk virus clones. The availability of Norwalk-specific cDNA and the new sequence information of the viral genome should permit the development of sensitive diagnostic assays and studies of the molecular biology of the virus. ProCite Record Number: 1930Journal Short Form workformS? Todd, E. C. D.1989HPreliminary estimates of costs of foodborne disease in the United States595-601Journal of Food Protection528fFoodborne-diseases, food-contamination, estimated-costs, microorganisms, mortality, economic, analysis  Although the full economic impact of foodborne diseases has yet to be measured, preliminary studies show that the cost of illness, death, and business lost is high indeed. This impact is probably greatest in developing countries, but few facts are known. For the United States, preliminary estimates are 12.6 million cases costing $8.4 billion. These may seem excessive but other authors have postulated even higher case and dollar figures. Microbiological diseases (bacterial and viral) represent 84% of the United States' costs, with salmonellosis and staphylococcal intoxication being the most economically important diseases (annually $4.0 billion and $1.5 billion, respectively). Other costly types of illnesses are toxoplasmosis ($445 million), listeriosis ($313 million), campylobacteriosis ($156 million), trichinosis ($144 million), Clostridium perfringens enteritis ($123 million), and E. coli infections including hemorrhagic colitis ($223 million). Botulism has a high cost per case ($322,200), but its total impact is only $87 million because relatively few cases occur (270). This is because the food industry has been able to introduce effective control measures. Salmonellosis, however, is much more widespread (2.9 million cases) and affects all sectors of the food industry.ProCite Record Number: 1940Journal Short Form workform?  Appleton, H.1991 Hepatitis109-1168Public Health Aspects of Seafood-Borne Zoonotic Diseases1=Bernoth, E. M. Ed. VetMed Hefte Robert von Ostertag-InstituteProCite Record Number: 1960Book Chapter workform'?  Anonymous1990Foodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1986-1988. Part 1. Trends in reporting cases and outbreaks of food poisoning and salmonellosis3-6#Communicable Disease Report, London9015ProCite Record Number: 1970Journal Short Form workform? Anonymous1990rFoodborne disease surveillance in England and Wales: 1986-1988. Part 2. Review of agents causing foodborne illness3-6#Communicable Disease Report, London9019ProCite Record Number: 1980Journal Short Form workform?KBarardi, C. R. M. H. Yip K. R. Emsile G. Vesey S. R. Shanker K. L. Williams1999TFlow cytometry and RT-PCR for rotavirus detection in artificially seeded oyster meat9-18*International Journal of Food Microbiology491-2yA flow cytometry (FC)-based method was developed for the detection of rotavirus in oyster meat using simian rotavirus SA11 as a model. To study virus recovery, oyster meat was injected with rotavirus and the oyster extract used to infect MA104 cell monolayers. Following varying periods of infection, the cells were recovered and reacted with the monoclonal antibody M60 which is specific for the rotavirus group A serotypes 1-4 outer capsid protein, VP7, followed by a second antibody (anti mouse IgG-FITC). A FACScan FC was used to estimate the number of infected cells as well as the level of infection. To evaluate the sensitivity of the method, non-inoculated oysters were processed following the same extraction protocol and, at the end, they were seeded with the same amount of virus used for oyster inoculation. This seeded oyster extract was then used to infect MA104 cells and the number of infected cells determined using the same FC procedure. A semi-nested two-step PCR for detection of rotavirus nucleic acid was undertaken to compare the sensitivity of FC with RT-PCR. Using FC, as little as 0.02 flow cytometry units (fcu) (number of infected cells counted by FC) could be detected after 72 h of cell infection. This is a very similar limit of sensitivity to that obtained with RT-PCR. Both methods are approximately 100 times more sensitive than the plaque-forming units (pfu) assay. ProCite Record Number: 1990Journal Short Form workform?PCaputo, C. A. Forbes F. Frost M. I. Sinclair T. R. Kunde J. F. Hoy C. K. Fairley1999eDeterminants of antibodies to Cryptosporidium infection among gay and bisexual men with HIV infection291-297Epidemiology and Infection1222A cross-sectional serosurvey for markers of prior Cryptosporidium infection was conducted among homosexual or bisexual males infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); of 262 individuals approached, 236 (90%) agreed to participate. Serological response to two Cryptosporidium antigens was measured using a Western blot assay. The intensity or detection of serological responses to two Cryptosporidium antigens was not associated with CD4 cell counts or tap water consumption. A number of sexual practices were related to increased serological response for only the 27-kDa marker, including having had sex within the past 2 years, having anal sex and having had a larger number of sex partners during the past 2 years. Attending a spa or sauna was related to serological response to both the 27-kDa and 17-kDa markers. Based on these results, activities related to sexual activity appear to be a significant risk factors for prior Cryptosporidium infection. ProCite Record Number: 1990Journal Short Form workform?Chauduri, M. S. A. Sattar19901Domestic water treatment for developing countries168-184=Drinking Water Microbiology: Progress and Recent DevelopmentsG. A. McFeters (Ed.)Springer-Verlag New York Inc.ProCite Record Number: 2000Book Long Form workform? Amahmid, O. S. Asmama K. Bouhoum1999xThe effect of waste water reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs19-26*International Journal of Food Microbiology491-2[In Marrakech, raw sewage has been used for farming purposes for several decades for many types of crops. This study aimed to determine the contamination level of Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs for crops designated for human consumption. Collected crops in irrigated fields were turnip, marrow, squash, potatoes, pepper and eggplant. Field trials were also carried out on four crops, coriander, carrots, mint and radish, using three water types for irrigation, i.e. raw waste water, treated waste water (sedimentation and 16 days retention) and fresh water. Giardia cysts were detected at a level of 5.1 cysts/kg in potatoes, while Ascaris eggs were observed in numbers varying between 0.18 eggs/kg in potatoes and 0.27 eggs/kg in turnip. Field trials confirmed that irrigation of crops by raw waste water leads to contamination. Giardia and Ascaris were isolated in coriander at concentrations of 254 cysts/kg and 2.7 eggs/kg, respectively; mint was also highly contaminated with numbers reaching 96 cysts/kg and 4.63 eggs/kg. Carrots and radish were contaminated and respective numbers observed for Giardia were 155 and 59.1 cysts/kg; Ascaris was discovered in numbers of 0.7 and 1.64 eggs/kg, respectively. However, cultures irrigated with treated waste water and fresh water were free from contamination. Cysts and eggs on coriander persisted for a maximum of 8 days. ProCite Record Number: 2000Journal Short Form workform?(Sobsey, M. D. Y. S. C. Shieh R. S. Baric1990hDetection of hepatitis A virus and other enteroviruses in environmental samples using gene probe methods193-212XBiotechnology and Food Safety: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Oct. 1989Bills, D. D. S.D. Kung (Ed.)BostonButterworth-HeinemannProCite Record Number: 2010Book Long Form workform?;Blackman, E. S. Binder C. Gaultier R. Benveniste M. Cecilio1997Cryptosporidiosis in HIV-infected patients: diagnostic sensitivity of stool examination, based on number of specimens submitted451-453$American Journal of Gastroenterology923OBJECTIVES: To determine the optimal number of stool specimens needed for the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis. METHODS: Four hundred thirty-five admissions were reviewed (291 patients) in which stool specimens were examined for Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (mean of 1.47 specimens per admission), using a modified acid-fast stain. The diagnostic yield of each specimen was determined. RESULTS: Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were found in 81 of 435 admissions (18.6%). Ninety-six percent of the positive cases were detected on the first stool specimen analysis, and 100% were detected by the second specimen. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of one specimen is generally appropriate for the diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis in a hospitalized patient with AIDS presenting with diarrhea. Examination of a second specimen may be appropriate if the first specimen is negative and there is a high clinical index of suspicion. ProCite Record Number: 2010Journal Short Form workformZ?.Estes, M. K. X. Jiang Y. J. Zhou T. G. Metcalf19904Nucleic acid hybridization to detect enteric viruses185-191XBiotechnology and Food Safety: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium, Oct. 1989Bills, D. D. S. D. Kung (Ed.)BostonButterworth-HeinemannProCite Record Number: 2020Book Long Form workform? Appleton, H.19902Laboratory investigations of viral gastroenteritis5#Communicable Disease Report, London9043ProCite Record Number: 2030Journal Short Form workform?Rose, J. B. T. R. Slifko1999LGiardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review 1059-1070Journal of Food Protection 629While the risk from pathogenic microorganisms in foods has been recognized for hundreds of years, bacterial agents are generally implicated as the contaminants. Although many outbreaks of gastroenteritis caused by protozoan pathogens have occurred, it is only in the last 3 years that attention has focused on protozoan association with foodborne transmission. Recognized as waterborne parasites, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora have now been associated with several foodborne outbreaks. The oocysts and cysts of these organisms can persist and survive for long periods of time both in water and on foods. While Cyclospora oocysts require a maturation period, Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts are immediately infectious upon excretion from the previous host. As a result, these parasites have emerged as public health risks and have become a concern to the food industry. More than 200 cases of foodborne giardiasis (seven outbreaks) were reported from 1979 to 1990. Four foodborne Cryptosporidium outbreaks (with a total of 252 cases) have been documented since 1993. Cyclospora caused a series of sporadic outbreaks of cyclosporasis throughout North America that have affected over 3,038 people since 1995. Control and prevention of protozoan foodborne disease depends upon our ability to prevent, remove, or kill protozoan contaminants. This review will address the biology, foodborne and waterborne transmission, survival, and methods for detection and control of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora.ProCite Record Number: 2050Journal Short Form workform$? Furuse, K.198787-124 Phage Ecology'Goyal, S. M. C. P. Gerba G. Bitton (Ed)John Wiley & SonsProCite Record Number: 2060Book Long Form workform?&Slifko, T. R. D. E. Huffman J. B. Rose1999YA most-probable-number assay for enumeration of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts 3936-3941&Applied and Environmental Microbiology659Cryptosporidium is globally established as a contaminant of drinking and recreational waters. A previously described cell culture infectivity assay capable of detecting infectious oocysts was adapted to quantify viable oocysts through sporozoite invasion and clustering of foci. Eight experiments were performed by using oocysts less than 4 months of age to inoculate host HCT-8 cell monolayers. Oocysts were diluted in a standard 5- or 10-fold multiple dilution format, levels of infection and clustering were determined, and the most probable number (MPN) of infectious oocysts in the stock suspension was calculated. The MPN was compared to the initial oocyst inoculum to determine the level of correlation. For oocysts less than 30 days of age, the correlation coefficient (r) was 0.9726 (0.9306 to 0.9893; n = 20). A two-tailed P value (alpha = 0.05) indicated that P was less than 0.0001. This strong correlation suggests that the MPN can be used to effectively enumerate infectious oocysts in a cell culture system. Age affected the degree of oocyst infectivity. Oocyst infectivity was tested by the focus detection method (FDM)-MPN assay and in BALB/c mice before and after treatment with pulsed white light (PureBrite). The FDM-MPN assay and animal infectivity assays both demonstrated more than a 4 log(10) inactivation. Municipal water systems and a host of other water testing organizations could utilize the FDM-MPN assay for routine survival and disinfection studies. ProCite Record Number: 2060Journal Short Form workform? Clark, D. P.1999)New insights into human cryptosporidiosis554-563Clinical Microbiology Reviews124reviewSCryptosporidium parvum is an important cause of diarrhea worldwide. Cryptosporidium causes a potentially life-threatening disease in people with AIDS and contributes significantly to morbidity among children in developing countries. In immunocompetent adults, Cryptosporidium is often associated with waterborne outbreaks of acute diarrheal illness. Recent studies with human volunteers have indicated that Cryptosporidium is highly infectious. Diagnosis of infection with this parasite has relied on identification of acid-fast oocysts in stool; however, new immunoassays or PCR-based assays may increase the sensitivity of detection. Although the mechanism by which Cryptosporidium causes diarrhea is still poorly understood, the parasite and the immune response to it probably combine to impair absorption and enhance secretion within the intestinal tract. Important genetic studies suggest that humans can be infected by at least two genetically distinct types of Cryptosporidium, which may vary in virulence. This may, in part, explain the clinical variability seen in patients with cryptosporidiosis. ProCite Record Number: 2070Journal Short Form workformX?Deng, M. Y. D. O. Cliver1994,Mixed waste studies with viruses and Giardia573-578On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. Dec. 11-13, 1994. Atlanta GA.Collins, E. Ed.ProCite Record Number: 2080Book Long Form workformm?Woody, M. A. D. O. Cliver1994?FRNA coliphages for monitoring groundwater near on-site systems551-558On-Site Wastewater Treatment. Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. Dec. 11-13, 1994. Atlanta GA.E. Collins (Ed.)ProCite Record Number: 2090Book Long Form workform|7Roberts, P. Hope, A.2003@Virus inactivation by high intensity broad spectrum pulsed light61-5J Virol Methods1101Animals Cattle Cell Line Dogs Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation Humans *Light Proteins Sunlight Ultraviolet Rays Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism *Virus Inactivation Viruses/*radiation effectsJun 9The inactivation of a range of enveloped and non-enveloped viruses by treatment with high intensity broad spectrum pulsed light (PureBright) has been investigated. In phosphate buffered saline, a dose of 1.0 J/cm2 was sufficient to effectively inactivate, i.e. >4.8->7.2 log of all the viruses tested, i.e. Sindbis, HSV-1, vaccinia, polio-1, EMC, HAV, CPV, BPV and SV40. However, in the presence of protein, i.e. 5% v/v foetal-calf serum (0.2% w/v protein), virus inactivation was less effective. At a dose of 2.0 J/cm2, virus inactivation was 5.0->6.4 log, however, HSV-1 (3.8 log), BPV (2.4 log) and SV40 (2.9 log) were all relatively resistant. This virus inactivation procedure may have application for increasing the safety of therapeutic biological products.ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=12757921oRoberts, Peter Hope, Andrew Netherlands Journal of virological methods J Virol Methods. 2003 Jun 9;110(1):61-5.0166-0934 (Print)12757921Bio Products Laboratory, Research and Development Department, Dagger Lane, Elstree, WD6 3BX, Herts, UK. peter.roberts@bpl.co.uk S0166093403000983 [pii]eng VK|73Sair, A. I. D'Sou?8Armson, A. B. P. Meloni J. A. Reynoldson R. C. Thompson1999[Assessment of drugs against Cryptosporidium parvum using a simple in vitro screening method227-233FEMS Microbiology Letters1782A rapid semi-quantitative screening method was devised for assessing the anticryptosporidial and cytotoxic effects of putative chemotherapeutic compounds. The method is suitable as an initial rapid screening procedure from which compounds demonstrating anticryptosporidial activity can be identified for further analysis. It has the advantages of speed, low cost and concurrent assessment of anticryptosporidial and cytotoxic effects and allows accurate determination of minimum lethal concentrations. Of the 71 compounds screened, six completely inhibited cryptosporidial growth at 1 microM (monensin, salinomycin, alborixin, lasalocid, trifluralin and nicarbazin) and a further eight showed significant anticryptosporidial activity at 1 or 20 microM (halquinol, bleomycin, suramin, mitomycin, doxycycline hydrochloride, toltrazuril, chloroquine phosphate and teniposide). Twelve compounds were found to have some degree of cytotoxicity at 1 microM and a further 12 at 20 microM. ProCite Record Number: 2100Journal Short Form workform?1Graczyk, T. K. M. R. Cranfield R. Fayer H. Bixler1999JHouse flies (Musca domestica) as transport hosts of Cryptosporidium parvum500-5041American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene613 transmissionRefuse and promiscuous-landing synanthropic filth flies, such as house flies (Musca domestica), are recognized as transport hosts for a variety of protozoan and metazoan parasites in addition to viral and bacterial pathogens of public health importance. Exposure of adult M. domestica to 20 ml of bovine diarrheal feces containing Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (2.0 x 10(5) oocysts/ml) resulted in intense deposition of the oocysts through fly feces on the surfaces visited by the flies (mean = 108 oocysts/cm2). Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were detected by immunofluorescent antibodies on the exoskeleton of adult flies and in their digestive tracts. An average of 267, 131, 32, 19, and 14 oocysts per adult fly were eluted from its exoskeleton on days 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 after they emerged, respectively. Approximately 320 C. parvum oocysts per pupa were eluted from the external surface of the pupae derived from maggots that breed in a substrate contaminated with the bovine feces; the oocysts were numerous on maggots (approximately 150 oocysts/maggot). Adult and larval stages of house flies breeding or having access to C. parvum-contaminated substrate will mechanically carry the oocysts in their digestive tracts and on their external surfaces. ProCite Record Number: 2110Journal Short Form workform8? [Graczyk, T. K. R. Fayer M. R. Cranfield B. Mhangami-Ruwende R. Knight J. M. Trout H. Bixler19999Filth Flies Are Transport Hosts of Cryptosporidium parvum726-727Emerging Infectious Diseases55 transmission not availableProCite Record Number: 2120Journal Short Form workform?! Appleton, H.1990$Foodborne illness: foodborne viruses 1362-1364Lancet3368727Review not availableProCite Record Number: 2160Journal Short Form workform\?"Wilson, J. A. A. B. Margolin1999dThe efficacy of three common hospital liquid germicides to inactivate Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts231-237Journal of Hospital Infection4232inactivation, disinfection; infectivity; viabilityWe evaluated three commonly used hospital disinfectants against three concentrations of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts (1.5 x 10(6), 1.5 x 10(5), 1.5 x 10(4)). A 10% phenol product, a 10% povidone-iodine product and a 2.5% glutaraldehyde product were tested against Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts without organic load. In-vitro excystation was used to determine viability and a cell culture assay was used to determine infectivity of germicide-treated oocysts. A 2.5% glutaraldehyde product was the most effective in halting excystation of sporozoites and infection in cell monolayers. However, this occurred only at the longest exposure time of 10 h and with the lowest concentration of oocysts (1.5 x 10(4)). The 10% phenol product and the 10% povidone-iodine product also decreased excystation, but were unable to halt infection. Although the ability of C. parvum to with-stand chemical treatment is well known, the ability of oocysts to remain viable and infectious after a 10 h treatment in glutaraldehyde is cause for concern. Endoscopic equipment that may come into contact with these organisms cannot be immersed into glutaraldehyde for this length of time due to its corrosive nature. Thus, the results of this research are cause for concern in hospital disinfection units. ProCite Record Number: 21705Journal Short Form workform (42) jwilson@ora.fda.gov  ?#AGunn, R. A. H. T. Janowski S. Lieb E. C. Prather H. B. Greenberg 1982>Norwalk virus gastroenteritis following raw oyster consumption348-351 American Journal of Epidemiology1153In January, 1980, six out of 13 persons (46%) attending a party in a small northwest Florida town near the Gulf of Mexico became ill with Norwalk virus gastroenteritis after eating raw oysters. Symptoms experienced by the ill persons were principally nausea (100%), vomiting (83%) and diarrhea (50%) and were of brief duration. The symptom complex and epidemiology of Norwalk virus infection closely resemble the gastrointestinal illness commonly referred to as the 24-hour intestinal flu or "stomach flu." Norwalk virus infection was identified in this outbreak by application of a recently developed sensitive and specific serologic radioimmunoassay. Oysters from the incriminated batch had fecal coliform levels above recommended standards; however, recent studies of oyster-harvesting waters have shown only a weak correlation between fecal coliforms and the presence of enteric viruses. Further studies are needed to determine whether modifications of monitoring modalities for oyster-harvesting waters are needed. ProCite Record Number: 2190Journal Short Form workform??$<Wang, J. Y. S. L. Hu H. Y. Liu Y. L. Hong S. Z. cao L. F. Wu1990KRisk factor analysis of an epidemic of hepatitis A in a factory in Shanghai435-438%International Journal of Epidemiology192&Investigation of an epidemic of hepatitis A which occurred in Shanghai in early 1988 was conducted at the Shanghai No. 2 Yarn Dyeing and Weaving Mill. In this factory the attack rate between January and April 1988 was 9%. The rate was highest among staff who ate raw clams (18%) and higher among those who ate cooked clams (7%) than among those who did not eat clams (2%). In addition, independent risk factors for infection were: age below 30 years (relative risk (RR) = 3.0, 95% Cl: 2.0, 4.5) shift work (RR = 3.3, 95% Cl: 1.9, 5.8) and eating out (RR = 4.7, 95% Cl: 2.3, 9.7). Consumption of clams contaminated with hepatitis A was the main risk factor in this episode. The study indicates that strengthening surveillance of shellfish hygiene is important in preventing future epidemics of hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 2220Journal Short Form workform?% Potter, M. E.1996%Risk assessment terms and definitions6-9Journal of Food ProtectionSuppl. S?(Original) Foodborne disease, risk assessment, risk terminologyRisk assessment is the characterization of potential adverse effects of exposures to hazards, including estimates of the magnitude of the risk, the severity of outcome, and an indication of the uncertainties involved. Because risk assessments are based on statistical and other treatments of scientific data, the quality of such assessments is only as good as the data that go into their calculation. Sources of uncertainty include scanty and/or unrepresentative data, imprecise measuring devices, systematic flaws in the data collection process, variability in host response, and difficulties in the modeling process. Sources of uncertainty tend to be different for infectious and noninfectious hazards, which has led to the use of different risk assessment approaches. The ultimate goal in using risk assessment is to provide some objective estimate of risk that can be used by the food industry and regulatory agencies to assure that foods are acceptably ProCite Record Number: 2250Journal Short Form workform?& Cliver, D. O.1995*Detection and control of foodborne viruses353-358%Trends in Food Science and Technology611-(original) Disease outbreaks, gastroenteritisViruses are transmitted in foods as inert, submicroscopic particles that come from the human intestines. Serologic and molecular detection methods have been devised for the detection of hepatitis A and small, round, structured gastroenteritis viruses in feces, but are not yet applicable for their detection in foods. The control of viral transmission via foods still depends greatly upon preventing contamination or on the thorough cooking of virus-contaminated food.ProCite Record Number: 2290Journal Short Form workform?'!Köster, D F. Hofmann H. Berthold19901Hepatitis A immunity in food-handling occupations304-305AEuropean Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases94ProCite Record Number: 2340Journal Short Form workform?(WWarburton, A. R. E. T.G. Wreghitt A. Pamling R. Buttery K.N. Ward K.R. Perry J.V. Parry1991$Hepatitis A outbreak involving bread199-202Epidemiology and Infection1061An outbreak of hepatitis A involved more than 50 residents of a group of villages in the late spring and summer of 1989. The only food that was common to all the laboratory-confirmed cases was bread, purchased either unwrapped or as rolls, sandwiches or filled rolls, and supplied either directly from one shop or indirectly through its subsidiary outlets. It was concluded that this bread was the most likely vehicle of transmission of the hepatitis A virus and that the bread was contaminated by soiled hands which were inadequately washed because of painful skin lesions. Comprehensive control measures were successful in limiting further spread of the infection. This outbreak highlights the transmissibility of hepatitis A virus on food. The use of disposable gloves when handling food which is to be consumed without further cooking would prevent transmission of this or other infectious agents by this route. ProCite Record Number: 2370Journal Short Form workform?)&Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D. .1984CDisinfection of virus on hands for prevention of food-borne disease75-87Int. J. Food Microbiol.12 not availableProCite Record Number: 2390Journal Short Form workformd?* World Health Organization1992ZWHO surveillance programme for control of foodborne infections and intoxications in EuropeSixth Report 1990-1992ProCite Record Number: 2400Report workform?,BViral gastroenteritis sub-committee of the PHLS virology committee19933Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with SRSV's2-8PHLS Microbiology Digest101ProCite Record Number: 2430Journal Short Form workform?-$Osherovich, A. M. G. S. Chasovnikova1967OStudy on the isolation of enteroviruses from environmental objects (in Russian)89-90zMaterialy problemnoi komissii Akademia Meditsinkikh Nauk SSSR "Poliomyelit i virusnye entsefality," Vypusk 1, EnterovirusyChumakov, M. P. Ed.Moscow Akademia Meditsinskikh Nauk SSSRProCite Record Number: 2450Book Long Form workformq?.8United States Department of Health Education and Welfare1979FAseptic meningitis outbreak at a military installation in Pennsylvania11WAseptic Meningitis Surveillance annual summary 1976, HEW-CDC publication number 79-82310U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Atlanta, GA.ProCite Record Number: 2470Book Long Form workform?/7Alhajjar, B. J. S. L. Stramer D. O. Cliver J. M. Harkin1988=Transport modelling of biological tracers from septic systems907-915Water Research22ProCite Record Number: 2600Journal Short Form workform 3?2.Bean, N. H. J. S. Goulding C. Lao F. J. Angulo1996FSurveillance for foodborne-disease outbreaks--United States, 1988-19921-66%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report4550 PROBLEM/CONDITION: Since 1973, CDC has maintained a collaborative surveillance program for collection and periodic reporting of data concerning the occurrence and causes of foodborne-disease outbreaks (FBDOs). REPORTING PERIOD COVERED: This summary reviews data from January 1988 through December 1992. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: The surveillance system reviews data concerning FBDOs--defined as the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food. Before 1992, only one case of intoxication by chemical, marine toxin, or Clostridium botulinum toxin as a result of the ingestion of food was required to constitute an FBDO. Since 1992, two or more cases have been required. State and local public health departments have primary responsibility for the identifying and investigating FBDOs. State and territorial health departments report these outbreaks to CDC on a standard form. RESULTS: During 1988-1992, a total of 2,423 outbreaks of foodborne disease were reported (451 in 1988, 505 in 1989, 532 in 1990, 528 in 1991, and 407 in 1992). These outbreaks caused a reported 77,373 persons to become ill. Among outbreaks for which the etiology was determined, bacterial pathogens caused the largest percentage of outbreaks (79%) and the largest percentage of cases (90%). Salmonella serotype Enteritidis accounted for the largest number of outbreaks, cases, and deaths; most of these outbreaks were attributed to eating undercooked, infected eggs. Chemical agents caused 14% of outbreaks and 2% of cases; parasites, 2% of outbreaks and 1% of cases; and viruses, 4% of outbreaks and 6% of cases. INTERPRETATION: The number of FBDOs reported per year did not change substantially during the first 4 years but declined in 1992 as a result of the revised definition of an outbreak. During this reporting period, S. Enteritidis continued to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality. In addition, multistate outbreaks caused by contaminated produce and outbreaks caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7 became more prominent. ACTIONS TAKEN: State and local public health departments investigate FBDOs. At the regional and national level, surveillance data provide an indication of the etiologic agents, vehicles of transmission, and contributing factors associated with FBDOs and help direct public health actions. ProCite Record Number: 2640Journal Short Form workform?3 Cliver, D. O.1966/Implications of food-borne infectious hepatitis159-165Public Health Reports812ProCite Record Number: 2660Journal Short Form workform?4 Cliver, D. O.1985%Vehicular transmission of hepatitis A235-292Public Health Review133-4ReviewProCite Record Number: 2670Journal Short Form workformG?5"Deng, M. Y. S. P. Day D. O. Cliver1994dDetection of hepatitis A virus in environmental samples by antigen-capture polymerase chain reaction 1927-1933&Applied and Environmental Microbiology606,The efficacy of the antigen-capture PCR (AC-PCR) method for the detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in environmental samples was demonstrated. HAV was captured from a seeded liquid waste or a shellfish sample with homologous antibody and then heat denatured and subjected to reverse transcription and the PCR, all in the same tube. Subsequently, the AC-PCR products were analyzed by oligonucleotide probe hybridization in solution, agarose gel electrophoresis, and autoradiography. The AC-PCR detected as little as 0.053 PFU of cell culture-adapted HAV strain HM175/18f. The results of cDNA-RNA hybridization indicated that the particle/PFU ratio of this virus strain is approximately 79:1. Therefore, the detection limit of the AC-PCR was estimated to be four virus particles. No amplified products were observed when poliovirus 1, coxsackievirus A9, coxsackievirus B3, echovirus 6, reovirus 1, adenovirus type 40, human rotavirus type 1, and bovine enterovirus type 2 were tested, confirming the specificity of the assay. There were no differences between the nucleotide sequences of AC-PCR products of HAV strain HM175/18f and the sequences of wild-type HAV strain HM175 derived from molecularly cloned cDNA. Of 121 waste and shellfish samples tested by both plaque assays (PA) in cell cultures and the AC-PCR, 81 (67%) were positive and 31 (26%) were negative as determined by both methods, whereas 9 (7%) were positive as determined by the AC-PCR and negative as determined by the PA, and none were positive as determined by the PA and negative as determined by the AC-PCR. ProCite Record Number: 2700Journal Short Form workform |7-Tian, P. Engelbrektson, A. L. Mandrell, R. E.2008pSeasonal tracking of histo-blood group antigen expression and norovirus binding in oyster gastrointestinal cells1696-700 J Food Prot718A?9{Greenberg, H. B. J. Valdesuso R. H. Yolken E. Gangarosa W. Gary R. G. Wyatt T. Konno H. Suzuki R. M. Chanock A. Z. Kapikian1979BRole of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis564-568Journal of Infectious Diseases1395Twenty-five separate outbreaks of nonbacterial gastrointestinal illnesses were studied serologically for evidence of infection with the Norwalk virus and the rotaviruses that affect humans. Eight of 25 outbreaks appeared to be related to the Norwalk virus. In one of the 25 outbreaks, there was evidence of rotavirus infection. These observations suggest that the Norwalk virus or serologically related agents play an important role in epidemic nonbacterial gastroenteritis in adults and older children. ProCite Record Number: 2750Journal Short Form workformn?:FGrohmann, G. S. A. M. Murphy P. J. Christopher E. Auty H. B. Greenberg1981GNorwalk virus gastroenteritis in volunteers consuming depurated oysters219-228?Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 5925Following the widespread outbreaks of oyster-associated gastroenteritis which occurred throughout Australia in 1978, several programmes were introduced to minimise the occurrence of further outbreaks. One programme included the depuration (purification) of oysters and the use of human volunteers to test-consume samples from batches of depurated oysters before their sale to the public. Oysters from the Georges River and Brisbane Waters were test-consumed from December, 1978, to August, 1979. None of the volunteers was ill after consuming Brisbane Waters oysters but 52 reported ill after eating Georges River oysters. The predominant symptoms were nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea with an average incubation period of 42 hours. Recovery was usually complete in 36-48 hours. Of the 52 illnesses reported 31 (60%) occurred in two particular weeks ending July 1st and 22nd when rates of 18.3% and 7.8% were reported. The average illness rate for the remainder of the period under study was only 1%. Norwalk virus was found in 8 of 25 (32%) stools, and antibody increases demonstrated in seven of ten paired sera, giving an overall diagnostic rate for Norwalk infection of 37.0% for these two peak periods. Heavy rain preceded these two weeks in which the illnesses occurred. No evidence of Norwalk infection was found at any other time. These studies confirmed the epidemiological findings of the major outbreak of gastroenteritis in 1978, and showed that only Georges River oysters caused Norwalk virus infections and that depuration as carried out in 1979 was not entirely satisfactory. ProCite Record Number: 2760Journal Short Form workformb?=fKoff, R. S. G. F. Grady T. C. Chalmers J. W. Mosley B. L. Swartz the Boston Inter-hospital Liver Group1967qViral hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals. III. Importance of exposure to shellfish in a nonepidemic period703-710New England Journal of Medicine27613ProCite Record Number: 2790Journal Short Form workform}??Rose, J. B. M. D. Sobsey1993TQuantitative risk assessment for viral contamination of shellfish and coastal waters 1043-1050Journal of Food Protection5612`(Original) Hepatitis, enteroviruses, volunteers, pathogens, infection, oysters, illness, viruses$Human pathogenic viruses have been detected. from approved shellfish harvesting waters based on the fecal coliform indicator. Until recently it was difficult to assess viral contamination and the potential impact on public health. Risk assessment is a valuable tool which can be used to estimate adverse effects associated with microbial hazards. This report describes the use of quantitative risk assessment for evaluating potential human health impacts associated with exposure to viral contamination of shellfish. The four fundamental steps used in a formal risk assessment are described within and include i) Hazard identification, ii) Dose-response determination, iii) Exposure assessment, and iv) Risk characterization. Dose-response models developed from human feeding studies were used to evaluate the risk of infection from contaminated shellfish. Of 58 pooled samples, 19% were found to be positive for viruses. Using an echovirus-12 probability model, the individual risk was determined for consumption of 60 g of raw shellfish. Individual risks ranged from 2.2 x 10(4) to 3.5 x 10(-2). These data suggest that individuals consuming raw shellfish from approved waters in the United States may have on the average a 1 in 100 chance of becoming infected with an enteric virus. Using the rotavirus model which represents a more infectious virus, the risk rose to 5 in 10. The potential for use of a risk assessment approach for developing priorities and strategies for control of disease is immense. Epidemiological data have demonstrated the significance of shellfish-associated viral disease and, although limited, appropriate virus occurrence data are available. Additional information on virus occurrence and exposure is needed, and then scientific risk assessment can be used to better assure the safety of seafood.ProCite Record Number: 2850Journal Short Form workform?@8United States Department of Health Education and Welfare1973,Common source outbreak of hepatitis A - Ohio86%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report27ProCite Record Number: 2860Journal Short Form workform?A@Wait, D. A. C. R. Hackney R. J. Carrick G. Lovelace M. D. Sobsey1983PEnteric bacterial and viral pathogens and indicator bacteria in hard shell clams493-496Journal of Food Protection46ProCite Record Number: 2870Journal Short Form workform?BgWhite, K. E. M. T. Osterholm J. A. Mariotti J. A. Korlath D. H. Lawrence T. L. Ristinen H. B. Greenberg1986NA foodborne outbreak of Norwalk virus: evidence for post-recovery transmission120-126 American Journal of Epidemiology1241JFrom November 10-16, 1982, 220 (57%) of 383 attendees at eight banquets for which food had been prepared at a single hotel restaurant and the employees of the hotel had onset of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis. Epidemiologic investigation of the three largest banquets confirmed consumption of potato and fruit salads (banquet A), coleslaw (banquet B), and tossed salad (banquet C) to be significantly associated with illness. Between November 8-19, similar illness occurred in seven (54%) of 13 hotel kitchen employees. The foods implicated in banquets A and B were prepared by one salad worker during her acute illness and up to 48 hours following her recovery. A second salad worker prepared the implicated tossed salad for banquet C 24 hours following her recovery. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first foodborne outbreak investigation demonstrating Norwalk viral excretion and transmission by a food handler after recovery from illness and either person-to-person or vehicle-borne transmission between food handlers with subsequent transmission by more than one food handler to patrons. ProCite Record Number: 2890Journal Short Form workform?C Anonymous1994:Outbreak of tick-borne encephalitis, presumably milk-borne140-141Weekly Epidemiology Research6913ProCite Record Number: 2900Journal Short Form workform ?DKane, M.1995CPublic health control of hepatitis A: Memorandum from a WHO meeting15-20)Bulletin of the World Health Organization731.Hepatitis A virus infection is a significant cause of morbidity in many parts of the world, and hepatitis A vaccines will be important tools for its prevention and control, This Memorandum reviews the basic features of the disease and ifs epidemiology, and considers the measures which are available for control and prevention, including hepatitis A vaccine, The use of this vaccine should be adapted to specific epidemiological circumstances existing within a geographical region, with special attention to the cost-effectiveness of immunization programmes.ProCite Record Number: 2910Journal Short Form workform?E Berg, G. Ed.1978'Indicators of Viruses in Water and FoodAnn Arbor, MichiganAnn Arbor ScienceProCite Record Number: 2920Book Long Form workform?F*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention1994/Viral hepatitis surveillance program, 1990-199219-34$Hepatitis Surveillance Report No. 55Atlanta Georgia*Centers for Disease Control and PreventionProCite Record Number: 2930Book Long Form workformD?G Cliver, D. O.1997Foodborne viruses!Fundamentals of Food Microbiology0Doyle, M. P. L. R. Beuchat T. J. Montville (Ed.)Washington D.C.!American Society for MicrobiologyProCite Record Number: 2940Book Long Form workform_G?HBCliver, D. O. R. D. Ellender G. S. Fout P. A. Shields M. D. Sobsey1992Foodborne viruses763-787BCompendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods,Vanderzant, S. C. D. F. Splittstoesser (Ed.)Washington, D.C."American Public Health Association3ProCite Record Number: 2960Book Long Form workformD?I/Council for Agricultural Science and Technology1994+Foodborne Pathogens: Risks and Consequences)Task Force Report No. 122, September 1994/Council for Agricultural Science and TechnologyAmes, IAProCite Record Number: 2970Book Long Form workform?LNew York Department of Health1989>A Review of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in New York State 19882Bureau of Community Sanitation and Food Protection Albany, NYProCite Record Number: 3000Book Long Form workform?M=Tang, Y. W. J. X. Wang Z. Y. Xu Y. F. Guo W. H. Qian J. X. Xu1991A serologically confirmed, case-control study, of a large outbreak of hepatitis A in China, associated with consumption of clams651-657Epidemiological Infection1073A matched and serologically confirmed case-control study was carried out to investigate the source of an outbreak of acute hepatitis involving 290,000 cases in the suburbs of Shanghai, in January 1988. A total of 132 patients with acute hepatitis from six different hospitals were chosen as cases and the same number of control patients without hepatitis were matched for gender, age, admission date and area of residence. Serum specimens from both case and control patients were detected for specific anti-hepatitis A (HA) IgM antibody and a questionnaire was used to investigate probable risk factors related to the outbreak. The positive rate of anti-HA IgM was 98.48% in the case group and only 0.76% in the control, indicating that the infection was caused by HA virus. The results revealed that the source and mode of transmission were due to the consumption of contaminated and inadequately cooked clams (Anadara subcrenata lischke). There was a highly positive dose-response relationship between the odds ratio of contracting HA and the quantity or frequency of clam consumption. The odds ratios of acquiring HA from clams were up to 62.4-63.4 by both group stratification and multiple unconditional logistic regression analyses. ProCite Record Number: 3010Journal Short Form workform?NARosenblum, L. S. I. R. Mirkin D. T. Allen S. Safford S. C. Hadler1990OA multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed lettuce 1075-1079!American Journal of Public Health809From February 1 through March 20, 1988, 202 cases of hepatitis A were reported in and around Jefferson County, Kentucky. The epidemic curve indicated a common-source exposure. However, there was no apparent single source of exposure from a restaurant, or community gathering; nor was there a geographic clustering by residence. Cases were mainly adults 20-59 years old (89 percent); 51 percent were female. A case-control study using neighborhood controls found that factors associated with hepatitis A were: having eaten downtown (odds ratio [OR] = 4.0) and having dined at any one of three restaurants (OR = 21.0). Case-control studies of patrons of two of these restaurants found that eating green salad was strongly associated with acquiring hepatitis A: OR = 11.6 and OR = 4.4. The three implicated restaurants accounted for 71 percent of the cases. All three restaurants were supplied by the same fresh produce distributor; however, investigation suggested that contamination most likely occurred prior to local distribution. This outbreak of hepatitis A is the first in the United States apparently associated with fresh produce contaminated before distribution to restaurants, and raises important public health issues regarding the regulation of fresh produce. ProCite Record Number: 3020Journal Short Form workform?OJMishu, B. S. C. Hadler V. A. Boaz R. H. Hutcheson J. M. Horan W. Schaffner1990>Foodborne hepatitis A: evidence that microwaving reduces risk?655-658Journal of Infectious Diseases1623During July 1988, 68 persons in Chattanooga, Tennessee, developed serologically confirmed hepatitis A. Between 15 June and 3 July, 93% of case-patients ate at a specific restaurant compared with only 3% of the local community. An intravenous drug user who worked as a cook was identified as the source. A case-control study was done to identify the vehicle of transmission. Case-patients were more likely than controls to have eaten hamburger buns and pickles, the only foods routinely handled after cooking. Of the restaurant patrons included in the study, 12 microwaved their food before consumption; none developed clinical illness despite eating large amounts of food handled after cooking. Sandwiches that were not microwaved were significantly associated with illness (odds ratio = 9.6; P less than .02). This epidemiologic evidence suggests that microwaves inactivate hepatitis A virus in food. ProCite Record Number: 3030Journal Short Form workformY?Q[Kobayashi, S. T. Morishita T. Yamashita K. Sakae O. Nishio T. Miyake Y. Ishihara S. Isomura1991}A large outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a small round structured virus among schoolchildren and teachers in Japan81-86Epidemiology and Infection1071In March 1989 a large outbreak of acute gastroenteritis occurred simultaneously among schoolchildren and teachers at nine elementary schools in Toyota City, Japan. Illness was observed in 3236 (41.5%) of 7801 schoolchildren and 117 (39.4%) of 297 teachers. The main clinical symptoms were diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Gastroenteritis was significantly associated with the consumption of school lunch served by one particular lunch preparation centre. One food handler at the centre suffered from gastroenteritis during the outbreak. Small round structured virus (SRSV) was detected in 4 of 8 stool specimens from sick persons. The school lunch contaminated by the infected food handler is the most probable source of this outbreak due to SRSV. ProCite Record Number: 3050Journal Short Form workform ?RWorld Health Organization19914Gastroenteritis associated with shellfish in England2-3ZWHO Surveillance Programme for Control of Foodborne Infections and Intoxications in Europe30ProCite Record Number: 3060Journal Short Form workform?S Anonymous1991DOutbreak of diarrhoeal illness associated with coronovirus infection1ECommunicable Disease and Environmental Health Weekly Report, Scotland2546ProCite Record Number: 3070Journal Short Form workformd?T.Zhou, Y. J. M. K. Estes X. Jiang T. G. Metcalf1991dConcentration and detection of hepatitis A virus and rotavirus from shellfish by hybridization tests 2963-2968&Applied and Environmental Microbiology5710<A modified polyethylene glycol precipitation method for concentration of virus followed by a new method to recover nucleic acid was used to detect hepatitis A virus (HAV) and rotavirus (SA11) in shellfish (oysters and hard-shell clams) by hybridization tests. Infectious virus, seeded into relatively large quantities of shellfish, was recovered consistently, with greater than 90% efficiency as measured by either in situ hybridization (HAV) or plaque assay (rotavirus SA11). Viral nucleic acid for dot blot hybridization assays was extracted and purified from virus-containing polyethylene glycol concentrates. Separation of shellfish polysaccharides from nucleic acid was necessary before viral RNA could be detected by dot blot hybridization. Removal of shellfish polysaccharides was accomplished by using the cationic detergent cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Use of CTAB reduced background interference with hybridization signals, which resulted in increased hybridization test sensitivity. After polysaccharide removal, dot blot hybridization assays could detect approximately 10(6) physical particles (corresponding to approximately 10(3) infectious particles) of HAV and 10(4) PFU of SA11 rotavirus present in 20-g samples of oyster and clam meats. These studies show continuing promise for the development of uniform methods to directly detect human viral pathogens in different types of shellfish. However, practical applications of such methods to detect noncultivatable human viral pathogens of public health interest will require additional improvements in test sensitivity. ProCite Record Number: 3080Journal Short Form workform?U7Jehl-Pietri, C. J. Dupont C. Herve D. Menard J. Munro J1991eOccurrence of faecal bacteria, Salmonella and antigens associated with hepatitis A virus in shellfish230-237;International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine1923@An investigation was carried out over a one year period to examine jointly the occurrence of faecal bacteria, salmonella and the presence of antigens associated with the hepatitis A virus (HAV) in oysters (Crassostrea gigas), mussels (Mytilus edulis, Mytilus galloprovincialis) and cockles (Cerastoderma edule), taken from 8 shellfish farming areas or natural beds along the French coast. For the faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS), statistical analysis of the 176 samples examined shows a statistically significant difference between sampling stations (F = 44.39 and F = 26.69 respectively, p less than 0.001): 4 of the 8 stations are more highly contaminated. Salmonella and antigens associated with HAV were detected in 5% and 1.7% respectively of the samples analysed. Frequency of isolation of salmonella is higher for the group of sampling stations where the mean levels of contamination by FC and FS are highest. The presence of HAV associated antigens was detected for the group of stations showing the lowest mean contamination levels. Taking all sample stations together, the percentage of isolation of salmonella differs significantly (chi 2 = 7.28, p less than 0.01) for the two classes of FC established on the basis of the threshold value (300 FC). There is no difference between the two classes of FS. For the HAV-associated antigens, detection percentages are similar for the two classes of results for FC and FS. Within each sampling station, considered independently, no particular correlation was found between the various viral and bacterial markers investigated. ProCite Record Number: 3090Journal Short Form workform?V6Martinez-Manzanares, E. M. A. Moriigo R. Cornax et al.1991tRelationship between classical indicators and several pathogenic microorganisms involved in shellfish-borne diseases711-717Journal of Food Protection54 9Quantitative relationships between classical indicators and the main pathogenic microorganisms involved in shellfish-borne diseases were established from shellfish samples (cockles, Cardium edule and striped venus, Chamelea gallina) collected from five sampling stations located at different depths in the estuary of Guadalhorce river (Malaga, Spain). F-ANOVA analyses applied to the variables: seasons, depth, and sampling stations, showed that a significant relationship could be established only between the season of the year and the concentrations of total anaerobic bacteria, coliphage, and Aeromonas hydrophila. Classical indicators present no significant correlation with the pathogenic microorganisms in shellfish samples, which questions the existence of a universal indicator of shellfish hygiene. However, from the lineal correlations between detection percentages of pathogens and the medians of the lognormal distribution (XX50) of the indicators, it can be deduced that the use of three indicators, Escherichia coli, fecal streptococci, or coliphages, is valid to establish the potential health hazard associated with the presence of Salmonella, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Staphylococcus aureus in shellfish samples.ProCite Record Number: 3100Journal Short Form workform cTt7=Mbithi, J. N. Springthorpe, V. S. Boulet, J. R. Sattar, S. A.1992lSurvival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces757-63J Clin Microbiol304Adult Hand/microbiology Handwashing Hepatitis A/microbiology/prevention & control/*transmission Hepatovirus/*isolation & purification Humans Pressure Surface PropertiesAprQThe survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV; strain HM175) on the hands of five volunteers was determined by depositing 10 microliters of fecally suspended virus on each fingerpad and eluting the inoculum after 0, 20, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min. The amount of virus recovered from each fingerpad at 0 min was approximately 6.0 x 10(4) PFU. At the end of 4 h, 16 to 30% of the initially recoverable virus remained detectable on the fingerpads. HAV inocula (10 microliters; approximately 1.0 x 10(4) PFU) placed on fingerpads or 1-cm-diameter metal disks were used to determine virus transfer to clean surfaces upon a 10-s contact at a pressure of nearly 0.2 kg/cm2. When the inoculum was dried for 20 min, virus transfer from fingerpad to fingerpad, fingerpad to disk, and disk to fingerpad ranged from 2,667 to 3,484 PFU, while 0 to 50 PFU could be transferred after 4 h of drying. Elevation of the contact pressure alone from 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2 resulted in an approximately t?XILytle, C. D. W. Truscott A. P. Budacz L. Venegas L. B. Routson W. H. Cyr 1991FImportant factors for testing barrier materials with surrogate viruses 2549-2554&Applied and Environmental Microbiology579This study evaluated bacteriophages phi X174, T7, PRD1, and phi 6 as possible surrogates for pathogenic human viruses to challenge barrier materials and demonstrated some important factors for their use. Chemical incompatibility with test material was demonstrated when lipid-enveloped phi 6 was inactivated by an aqueous eluate of vinyl gloves, but 0.5% calf serum protected phi 6 from the eluate. Low concentrations (2%) of calf serum also prevented the exaggerated binding of the bacteriophages to filters. Recovery of viruses from surfaces decreased with increasing time before recovery. Penetration through punctures displayed different types of kinetics. The combined data indicate that (i) some bacteriophages may serve as surrogate viruses, (ii) experimental conditions determine whether a particular virus is appropriate as a challenge, and (iii) phi X174 is an excellent choice as a surrogate virus to test barrier materials. The data further indicate that before barrier materials are challenged with viruses, adequate tests should be performed to ensure that the virus is compatible with the test material and test conditions, so that meaningful data will result. ProCite Record Number: 3120Journal Short Form workformn?Y7Pinto, R. M. F. X. Abad R. M. Roca J. M. Riera A. Bosch1991gThe use of bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis as indicators of the efficiency of virucidal products61-65FEMS Microbiology Letters661LThe potential use of bacteriophage B40-8 of Bacteroides fragilis for the evaluation of the virucidal activity of antiseptics or disinfectants was investigated. The antiviral activity of two antiseptics and two disinfectants was evaluated according to a standard guideline. The effect of the virucidal agents was assessed on (i) viruses usually spread by direct contact with surfaces with contaminated secretions, i.e. herpes virus 1 and 2, and vaccinia virus, and (ii) viruses transmitted by the fecal-oral route, i.e. hepatitis A virus, poliovirus, adenovirus and rotavirus. The survival of B40-8 always equalled or exceeded that of the animal viruses tested. Our data suggest the use of bacteriophage B40-8 to complement the information furnished by some standardized methods in ascertaining the antiviral activity of virucidal preparations. ProCite Record Number: 3130Journal Short Form workformS?ZTjotta, E. O. Hungnes B. Grinde1991SSurvival of HIV-1 activity afterdisinfection, temperature and pH changes, or drying223-227Journal of Medical Virology354YA recently developed assay for measuring infectious HIV-1 particles was used to determine the stability of the virus under various storage conditions as well as the effect of commonly used disinfectants. At the optimum pH of 7.1 the half life of the virus ranged from approx. twenty-four hours at 37 degrees C to no significant loss over 6 months at -75 degrees C. Drying the virus on a glass surface or freezing caused a 5-12 fold and 4-5 fold decrease of activity, respectively. The dried preparations, however, were about as stable as when stored in a buffered solution. A solution of iodine and detergent (2% Jodopax) was the only disinfectant examined which removed all detectable HIV-1 activity. Isopropanol and ethanol were more potent than acetone; however, all three solvents left some viable particles after a 30 min treatment with 70% solutions. ProCite Record Number: 3140Journal Short Form workform?[ Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe1991]Survival and disinfectant inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: a critical review430-447Reviews of Infectious Diseases133ReviewThe possibility of contracting acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) through accidental or inapparent parenteral exposure to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has raised concerns among recipients of blood products, health-care professionals, and others who have contact either with HIV or with AIDS patients. Along with these concerns has come an increasing interest in the physical and chemical methods that may be used to inactivate HIV in blood products and other contaminated fluids as well as on contaminated objects and surfaces. This review critically examines the available information on the survival of HIV and the methods used for its inactivation, particularly those that rely on chemical disinfection. Although the risk of acquiring HIV from contaminated materials may be slight compared with that of acquiring other blood-borne pathogens, such as hepatitis B virus, the effectiveness of disinfectants used under clinical conditions may have been overestimated. ProCite Record Number: 3150Journal Short Form workform?\"Lemon, S. M. E. Amphlett D. Sangar1991lProtease digestion of hepatitis A virus: disparate effects on capsid proteins, antigenicity, and infectivity 5636-5640Journal of Virology6510High concentrations of either trypsin or chymotrypsin caused nearly complete cleavage of capsid protein VP2 of hepatitis A virus but did not significantly reduce the infectivity, thermostability, or antigenicity of the virus. Chymotrypsin also had a lesser effect on VP1. These findings indicate the presence of a protease-accessible VP2 surface site which neither contributes significantly to the dominant antigenic site nor plays a role in the attachment of the virus to putative cell receptors. ProCite Record Number: 3160Journal Short Form workform?])House, C. J. A. House R. J. Yedloutschnig1991AInactivation of viral agents in bovine serum by gamma irradiation737-740 Canadian Journal of Microbiology3610Cell culture origin or suckling mouse brain origin viruses of Akabane disease, Aino, bovine ephemeral fever, swine vesicular disease, hog cholera, bluetongue, and minute virus of mice were each suspended in bovine serum. Aliquots (1 mL) were exposed to various doses of gamma radiation from a 60Co source while at -68 degrees C. Aliquots (100-mL) of serum from a steer experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus were similarly irradiated. The samples were assayed for infectivity in cell culture systems before and after irradiation, and the data points were analyzed by linear regression. The irradiation doses (in megarads) necessary to inactivate one log10 of viral infectivity (D10) was calculated for each virus. D10 is otherwise known as the slope of the regression line. The r2 value, a measure of association with 1.0 = perfect fit, was also calculated for each regression line. The values (D10, r2) for each virus were as follows: Akabane, 0.25, 0.998; Aino, 0.35, 0.997; bovine ephemeral fever, 0.29, 0.961; swine vesicular disease, 0.50, 0.969; foot-and-mouth disease, 0.53, 0.978; hog cholera, 0.55, 0.974; bluetongue, 0.83, 0.958; and minute virus of mice, 1.07, 0.935.ProCite Record Number: 3170Journal Short Form workformT?^TTaguchi, F. Y. Tamai K. Uchida R. Kitajima H. Kojima T. Kawaguchi Y. Ohtani S. Miura1991YProposal for a procedure for complete inactivation of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent297-301Archive of Virology1193-4$We have examined complete inactivation conditions on brain homogenates from mice affected with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent, and recommend for routine use a reliable procedure first treating the affected materials with 1 N NaOH for 60 min and then autoclaving at 121 degrees C for 30 min. ProCite Record Number: 3180Journal Short Form workform?_#Tateishi, J. T. Tashima T. Kitamoto1991QPractical methods for chemical inactivation of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease pathogen163-166Microbiology and Immunology352Chemical inactivation of pathogen of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was examined using the mouse-adapted CJD strain. A high concentration of formic acid, guanidine compounds, trichloroacetate and phenol prevented CJD transmission. NaOH between 0.25 and 2 N lengthened the incubation periods. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in a concentration between 1 and 3% did not alter incubation at room temperature but did completely block the transmission after boiling for 3 min in 3% SDS. This method is recommended for practical disinfection. ProCite Record Number: 3190Journal Short Form workform?`0Martinez-Manzanares, E. F. Egea D. Castro et al.1991Accumulation and depuration of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by the bivalve mollusc, Chamelea gallina L, under controlled laboratory conditions612-618Journal of Food Protection548[The comparative accumulation and depuration processes for several microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and MS-2 coliphage) by the striped venus, Chamelea gallina, under controlled laboratory conditions were studied. Microorganisms accumulated rapidly in bivalves during the first 6 h, with accumulation rates between 3.2 to 360.5 organisms/h depending on the type of microorganism. The relative patterns and rates of elimination of the microorganisms suggest that they are eliminated from shellfish in two different ways. One is of a mechanical nature that results in microbial elimination during the first 12 h. The other elimination mechanism depends upon the microbial species and their accumulated number. All microorganisms tested were eliminated completely by the molluscs after 3 d of depuration, except MS-2 bacteriophages. Results indicate that MS-2 coliphages may be a more reliable indicator of the microbial depuration efficiency by the shellfish under laboratory conditions than E. coli.ProCite Record Number: 3200Journal Short Form workform?a7Mallett, J. C. L. E. Beghian T. G. Metcalf J. D. Kaylor1991EPotential of irradiation technology for improved shellfish sanitation231-245Journal of Food Safety114Shellfish, food-irradiation, food-sanitation, consumer-protection, rotavirus, organoleptic-traits, hepatitis-a-virus, food-microbiologyWIonizing radiation is shown capable of serving as an effective sanitizing treatment improving the sanitary quality of shellfish and providing an increased margin of safety for shellfish consumers. 60Co irradiation of the hard-shelled clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, and the oyster, Crassostrea virginica, significantly reduced virus carriage numbers without unduly affecting shellfish survival rates or desirable organoleptic qualities. A D10 value of 2 kGy was determined for depletion of hepatitis A virus in clams and oysters as measured by in situ hybridization fluorescent foci and cytopathology enumeration methods. A D10 value of 2.4 kGy was determined for depletion of rotavirus SA11 in clams and oysters as measured by a plaque forming unit enumeration method. Study results showed ionizing radiation capable of providing an extra, highly effective safeguard of shellfish sanitary quality when combined with traditional depuration treatment. Data drawn from other studies is introduced which shows D10 values as low as 1.0 kGy effectively eliminate Vibrio cholerae, and V. parahemolyticus, from shellfish.ProCite Record Number: 3210Journal Short Form workform?b3Herwaldt, B. L. G.F. Craun S.L. Stokes D.D. Juranek1991'Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1989-19901-21%Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report403For the 2-year period 1989-1990, 16 states reported 26 outbreaks due to water intended for drinking; an estimated total of 4,288 persons became ill in these outbreaks. Giardia lamblia was implicated as the etiologic agent for seven of the 12 outbreaks in which an agent was identified. The outbreaks of giardiasis were all associated with ingestion of unfiltered surface water or surface-influenced groundwater. An outbreak with four deaths was attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, the only bacterial pathogen implicated in any of the outbreak investigations. An outbreak of remitting, relapsing diarrhea was associated with cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)-like bodies, whose role in causing diarrheal illness is being studied. Two outbreaks due to hepatitis A and one due to a Norwalk-like agent were associated with use of well water. Eighteen states reported a total of 30 outbreaks due to the use of recreational water, which resulted in illness for an estimated total of 1,062 persons. These 30 reports comprised 13 outbreaks of whirlpool- or hot tub-associated Pseudomonas folliculitis; 13 outbreaks of swimming-associated gastroenteritis, including five outbreaks of shigellosis; one outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a swimming pool; and three cases of primary amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria. The national surveillance of outbreaks of waterborne diseases, which has proceeded for 2 decades, continues to be a useful means for characterizing the epidemiology of waterborne diseases. ProCite Record Number: 3220Journal Short Form workformx?ciLawson, H. W. M. M. Braun R. I. M. Glass S. E. Stine S. S. Monroe H. K. Atrash L. E. Lee S. J. Englender 1991Waterborne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis at a southwest US resort: role of geological formations in contamination of well water 1200-1204Lancet3378751 From April 17 to May 1, 1989, gastroenteritis developed in about 900 people during a visit to a new resort in Arizona, USA. Of 240 guests surveyed, 110 had a gastrointestinal illness that was significantly associated with the drinking of tap water from the resort's well (relative risk = 16.1, 95% confidence interval 14.5 to 17.8) and this risk increased significantly with the number of glasses of water consumed (p less than 0.005). Three of seven paired sera tested for antibodies to the Norwalk agent had a four-fold or greater rise in titre. Water contaminated with faecal coliforms was traced back to the deep water well, which remained contaminated even after prolonged pumping. Effluent from the resort's sewage treatment facility seeped through fractures in the subsurface rock (with little filtration) directly into the resort's deep well. Although the latest technology was used to design the resort's water and sewage treatment plants, the region's unique geological conditions posed unexpected problems that may trouble developers faced with similar subsurface geological formations and arid climatic conditions in many parts of the world. In these areas, novel solutions are needed to provide adequate facilities for the treatment of sewage and supply of pure drinking water. ProCite Record Number: 3230Journal Short Form workform?dCannon, R. O. J. R. Poliner R. B. Hirschhorn D. C. Rodeheaver P. S. Silverman E. A. Brown G. H. Talbot S. E. Stine S. S. Monroe D. T. Dennis R. I. Glass1991dA multistate outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of commercial ice860-863Journal of Infectious Diseases164 5Between 19 and 27 September 1987, a cluster of outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness occurred among persons who had attended a museum fund-raiser in Wilmington, Delaware and an intercollegiate football game in Philadelphia. A survey of four groups attending these events showed that 31% (191/614) became ill. Altogether, those who consumed ice were 12 times more likely to experience either vomiting or diarrhea than those who did not (attack rate, 55% vs. 4%, P less than .001). Ice consumed at the events was traced to a manufacturer in southeastern Pennsylvania whose wells had been contaminated when flooded by a nearby creek after a torrential rainfall on 8 September. Of 19 affected persons tested within 1 week of exposure, 13 (68%) had at least a fourfold rise in antibody titer to the Norwalk virus. This report, the first to document an association of contaminated commercial ice with Norwalk gastroenteritis should prompt reassessment of government regulation of the production and distribution of ice. ProCite Record Number: 3240Journal Short Form workform?e-Ansari, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe S. A. Sattar1991aSurvival and vehicular spread of human rotaviruses: possible relation to seasonality of outbreaks448-461Reviews of Infectious Diseases133ReviewIn developing countries rotavirus infections account for nearly 6% of all diarrheal episodes and for 20% of diarrhea-associated deaths of young children. Even in industrialized countries rotavirus diarrhea in the young is among the leading causes of hospitalization. In temperate regions institutional outbreaks of the disease occur mainly in cold dry weather, whereas in tropical settings the seasonality is less well defined. Waterborne outbreaks of rotavirus gastroenteritis have been recorded; air, hands, fomities, and food may also act as vehicles for this infection. Rotaviruses can survive for weeks in potable and recreational waters and for at least 4 hours on human hands. In air and on nonporous inanimate surfaces, the survival of rotaviruses is favored by a relative humidity of less than or equal to 50% and viral infectivity can be retained for several days. Rotaviruses are relatively resistant to commonly used hard-surface disinfectants and hygienic hand-wash agents. ProCite Record Number: 3250Journal Short Form workform?f+Richardson, K. J. M. H. Stewart R. L. Wolfe1991:Application of gene probe technology to the water industry71-81+Journal of American Water Works Association83ProCite Record Number: 3260Journal Short Form workform?g)Margolin, A. B. M. J. Hewlett C. P. Gerba1991VThe application of a poliovirus cDNA probe for the detection of enteroviruses in water277-280Water Science and Technology24 not availableProCite Record Number: 3270Journal Short Form workform?hDeleon, R. C. P. Gerba19910Detection of rotaviruses in water by gene probes281-284Water Science and Technology242ProCite Record Number: 3280Journal Short Form workform]?iOFarrah, S. R. D. R. Preston G. A. Toranzos M. Girard G. A. Erdos V. Vasuhdivan 1991OUse of modified diatomaceous earth for removal and recovery of viruses in water 2502-2506&Applied and Environmental Microbiology579*Diatomaceous earth was modified by in situ precipitation of metallic hydroxides. Modification decreased the negative charge on the diatomaceous earth and increased its ability to adsorb viruses in water. Electrostatic interactions were more important than hydrophobic interactions in virus adsorption to modified diatomaceous earth. Filters containing diatomaceous earth modified by in situ precipitation of a combination of ferric chloride and aluminum chloride adsorbed greater than 80% of enteroviruses (poliovirus 1, echovirus 5, and coxsackievirus B5) and coliphage MS2 present in tap water at ambient pH (7.8 to 8.3), even after filtration of 100 liters of tap water. Viruses adsorbed to the filters could be recovered by mixing the modified diatomaceous earth with 3% beef extract plus 1 M NaCl (pH 9). ProCite Record Number: 3290Journal Short Form workforma?j'Gajardo, R. J. M. Dez J. Jofre A. Bosch1991|Adsorption-elution with negatively and positively-charged glass powder for the concentration of hepatitis A virus from water345-351Journal of Virological Methods312-31Two methods based on virus adsorption and elution from glass powder were developed for the concentration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) from large volumes of water. The cytopathogenic pHM-175 strain of HAV was used to test these procedures in tap water, fresh water, sea water and raw sewage. HAV was quantitated by a plaque assay in the FRhK-4 cell line. HAV was concentrated by glass powder adsorption-elution from 20-liter samples with satisfactory efficiencies in all types of water: 100% for tap water, 80% for freshwater, 75% for sea water and 61% for sewage. The charge of glass powder was modified by polyethylenimine treatment to avoid the need to pretreat the sample. Concentration efficiencies of HAV in 20-1 samples through adsorption to and elution from positively-charged glass powder were 100% for tap water, 94% for sea water, and 61% for fresh water and sewage. Both methods were used for the detection of wild-type HAV in raw sewage. Wild-type HAV in concentrated sewage samples was detected by molecular hybridization with a digoxigenin-labelled cDNA probe. ProCite Record Number: 3300Journal Short Form workform4?k{Havelaar, A. H. M. Butler S. R. Farrah J. Jofre E. Marques A. Ketratanakul M. T. Martins S. Ohgakis M. D. Sobsey U. Zaiss 19918Bacteriophages as model viruses in water quality control529-545Water Research255ReviewProCite Record Number: 3310Journal Short Form workform ?m Hurst, C. J.1991pPresence of enteric viruses in freshwater and their removal by the conventional drinking water treatment process113-119)Bulletin of the World Health Organization691ReviewA review of results published in English or French between 1980 and 1990 was carried out to determine the levels of indigenous human enteric viruses in untreated surface and subsurface freshwaters, as well as in drinking water that had undergone the complete conventional treatment process. For this purpose, the conventional treatment process was defined as an operation that included coagulation followed by sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. Also assessed was the stepwise efficiency of the conventional treatment process, as practised at full-scale facilities, for removing indigenous viruses from naturally occurring freshwaters. A list was compiled of statistical correlations relating to the occurrence of indigenous viruses in water. ProCite Record Number: 3330Journal Short Form workform;?n Payment, P.1991fFate of human enteric viruses, coliphages, and Clostridium perfringens during drinking-water treatment154-157 Canadian Journal of Microbiology372=The elimination of human enteric viruses, coliphages, and Clostridium perfringens was studied during a conventional complete drinking-water treatment process. The respective concentrations (geometric mean) of these microorganisms in 100-L samples of river water were, respectively, as follows: viruses, 79 mpniu (most probable number of infectious units) per 100 L, coliphages, 6565 pfu (plaque-forming units) per 100 L. and clostridia, 11,349 cfu (colony-forming units) per 100 L. After predisinfection, flocculation with alum, and settling, human enteric viruses were not detected in any of the 100-L samples (less than 4 mpniu/100 L), but coliphages were detected in 7 of 14 samples and clostridia in 15 of 16 samples. In filtered water samples, human enteric viruses were detected in 2 of 31 samples, coliphages in 10 of 33, and clostridia in 17 of 33. Finished water was free of human enteric viruses (0/162 samples), but coliphages were detected in one sample (1.5 pfu/100 L) and clostridia in three, at 1.0, 4.1, and 7.0 cfu/100 L. It thus appears that coliphages and clostridia, which are present in larger numbers than viruses in river water and which may have similar resistance to drinking-water treatments, may be useful for estimating the level of treatment attained when large volumes of water (1000 L or greater) are sampled. ProCite Record Number: 3340Journal Short Form workform5?oFinch, G. R. N. Fairbairn1991mComparatie inactivation of poliovirus type 3 and MS2 coliphage in demand-free phosphate buffer by using ozone 3121-3126&Applied and Environmental Microbiology571MS2 coliphage (ATCC 15597-B1) has been proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a surrogate for enteric viruses to determine the engineering requirements of chemical disinfection systems on the basis of previous experience with chlorine. The objective of this study was to determine whether MS2 coliphage was a suitable indicator for the inactivation of enteric viruses when ozone disinfection systems were used. Bench-scale experiments were conducted in 2-liter-batch shrinking reactors containing ozone demand-free 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) at 22 degrees C. Ozone was added as a side stream from a concentrated stock solution. It was found that an ozone residual of less than 40 micrograms/liter at the end of 20 s inactivated greater than 99.99% of MS2 coliphage in the demand-free buffer. When MS2 was compared directly with poliovirus type 3 in paired experiments, 1.6 log units more inactivation was observed with MS2 coliphage than with poliovirus type 3. It was concluded that the use of MS2 coliphage as a surrogate organism for studies of enteric virus with ozone disinfection systems overestimated the inactivation of enteric viruses. It is recommended that the regulatory agencies evaluate their recommendations for using MS2 coliphage as an indicator of enteric viruses. ProCite Record Number: 3350Journal Short Form workform?p0Vaughn, J. M. Y. S. Chen J. F. Novotny D. Strout1991BEffects of ozone treatment on the infectivity of hepatitis A virus557-560 Canadian Journal of Microbiology368The inactivation of a large-focus-forming variant of hepatitis A virus (HM-175) by ozone was investigated. Experiments using mainly single-particle virus preparations suspended in phosphate-carbonate buffer were conducted over a range of pH levels (6-8) at 4 degrees C. Viral enumerations involved the use of a radioimmunofocus assay. While some tolerance to lower (i.e., 0.1-0.5 mg/L) ozone residuals was noted, the exposure of virus particles to ozone concentrations of 1 mg/L or greater at all pH levels resulted in their complete (5 log) inactivation within 60 s. The pH-related effects that were observed were not considered to be significant.ProCite Record Number: 3360Journal Short Form workform?qLSmirnov, Y. A. S. P. Kapitulets N. N. Amitina V. A. Ginevskaya N. V. Kaverin1991%Effect of UV-irradiation on rotavirus1-6ACTA Virologica351The effect of UV-irradiation on SAll rotavirus infectivity was followed. The time course of infectivity inactivation in general showed an one-hit pattern. Two basic effects of UV-irradiation on virus particles were investigated: the phenomenon of RNA-protein linkages and the formation of uracil dimers. To determine the number of uridine dimers, 3H-uridine labelled purified rotavirus was exposed to UV-irradiation, subsequently the RNA was extracted and analysed by ascending paper chromatography. Formation of photodimers was found to be an important mechanism of rotavirus inactivation at conventional UV-irradiation; the RNA-protein linkages were registered at high irradiation doses only. ProCite Record Number: 3370Journal Short Form workform5?r4Yahya, M. T. T. M. Straub C. P. Gerba A. B. Margolin1991hInactivation of bacteriophage MS-2 and poliovirus in copper, galvanized and plastic domestic water pipes76-866International Journal of Environmental Health Research1ProCite Record Number: 3380Journal Short Form workform?s West, P. A.1991MHuman pathogenic viruses and parasites: emerging pathogens in the water cycle 107S-114S Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Ser.20 Supplement1ProCite Record Number: 3390Journal Short Form workform?tHara, S. K. Terauchi I. Koike1991iAbundance of viruses in marine waters: assessment by epifluorescence and transmission electron microscopy 2731-2734&Applied and Environmental Microbiology57ProCite Record Number: 3400Journal Short Form workform?u"Paul, J. H. S. C. Jiang J. B. Rose1991^Concentration of viruses and dissolved DNA from aquatic environments by vortex flow filtration 2197-2204(Applied and Environmental Microbiology578Vortex flow filtration (VFF) was used to concentrate viruses and dissolved DNA from freshwater and seawater samples taken in Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Bahamas Bank. Recoveries of T2 phage and calf thymus DNA added to artificial seawater and concentrated by VFF were 72.8 and 80%, respectively. Virus concentrations determined by transmission electron microscopy of VFF-concentrated samples ranged from 3.4 x 10(7)/ml for a eutrophic Tampa Bay sample to 2.4 x 10(5) for an oligotrophic oceanic surface sample from the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Viruslike particles were also observed in a sample taken from a depth of 1,500 m in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean. Filtration of samples through Nuclepore or Durapore filters (pore size, 0.2 micron) prior to VFF reduced phage counts by an average of two-thirds. Measurement of dissolved-DNA content by Hoechst 33258 fluorescence in environmental samples concentrated by VFF yielded values only ca. 35% of those obtained for samples concentrated by ethanol precipitation (the standard dissolved-DNA method). However, ethanol precipitation of VFF-concentrated extracts resulted in an increase in measurable DNA, reaching 80% of the value obtained by the standard method. These results indicate that a portion of the naturally occurring dissolved DNA is in a form inaccessible to nucleases and Hoechst stain, perhaps bound to protein or other polymeric material, and is released upon ethanol precipitation. Viral DNA contents estimated from viral counts averaged only 3.7% (range, 0.9 to 12.3%) of the total dissolved DNA for samples from freshwater, estuarine, and offshore oligotrophic environments. ProCite Record Number: 3410Journal Short Form workform?v?Cornax, R. M. A. Moriigo M. C. Balebona D. Castro J. J. Borrego1991_Significance of several bacteriophage groups as indicators of sewage pollution in marine waters673-678Water Research256ProCite Record Number: 3420Journal Short Form workformq?w)Powelson, D. K. J. R. Simpson C. P. Gerba1991@Effects of organic matter on virus transport in unsaturated flow 2192-2196&Applied and Environmental Microbiology578sThe effects of natural humic material and sewage sludge organic matter (SSOM) derived from primary treated sewage sludge on virus transport by unsaturated flow through soil columns were evaluated. Bacteriophage MS-2 was applied to loamy fine sand columns 0.052 m in diameter and 1.05 m long. Virus concentrations in the influent and effluent were measured daily for 7 to 9 days. In the first experiment, virus transport through two fresh soil columns was compared with that through a column previously leached with more than four pore volumes (T) of well water. The soil water organic matter concentrations in the leachate of the fresh soil declined with time. Relative virus concentrations (C/Co) from one fresh soil column reached 0.82 in 0.9 T and then declined to 0.51 by 2.1 T. The other fresh soil column reached and maintained a steady-state relative virus concentration [(C/Co)s] of 0.47 from 1.5 to 2.5 T. The leached column reached and maintained a (C/Co)s of 0.05. Concentrations measured at 0.2-, 0.4-, 0.8-, and 1.05-m depths indicated that most virus particles were removed in the surface 0.2 m. In the second experiment, one leached column was pretreated with SSOM derived from primary treated sewage sludge and the other leached column was untreated. SSOM concentrations declined with depth. A suspension of virus and SSOM in well water was applied to both columns. Although the (C/Co)s values were similar (0.41 for the pretreated column and 0.47 for the untreated column), breakthrough was delayed for the untreated column. Both natural humic material and sewage sludge-derived SSOM increased the unsaturated-flow transport of MS-2. ProCite Record Number: 3430Journal Short Form workform?x%Ross, B. C. D. A. Anderson I. D. Gust1991+Hepatitis A virus and hepatitis A infection209-253Advances in Virus Research39ReviewProCite Record Number: 3440Journal Short Form workform?yVranckx, R. L. Muylle1991PHepatitis A virus antibodies in Belgium: relationship between prevalence and age364-366 Infection18ProCite Record Number: 3450Journal Short Form workform?zHGreen, M. S. D. Cohen R. Slepon R. Handsher Y. Zaaide L. Rannon Y. Danon1991Sociodemographic correlates of neutralizing poliovirus and hepatitis A virus antibodies as markers of different modes of acquiring immunity 1270-1271!American Journal of Public Health8010sThe prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of antibodies against poliovirus and hepatitis A virus (HAV) were compared in a random sample of 457 military recruits in Israel inducted during 1987. Lower socioeconomic status (SES) was associated with a higher prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies (67.3 vs 32.5 percent), whereas the reverse was true for type 1 poliovirus (78.4 vs 89.5 percent). While the high prevalence of anti-HAV antibodies observed in the lower SES groups reflects considerable natural exposure to enteroviruses, immunity against poliovirus appears to be determined primarily by compliance with vaccination. ProCite Record Number: 3460Journal Short Form workform?{DGirond, S. J. M. Crance H. Van Cuyck-Gandre J. Renaudet R. Deloince 1991RAntiviral activity of carrageenan on hepatitis A virus replication in cell culture261-270Research in Virology1424Sulphated polysaccharides such as iota-, lambda- and kappa-carrageenans showed a potent inhibitory effect on the replication of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in the human hepatoma cell line PLC/PRF/5. No cytotoxic effects were detected with concentrations of carrageenans up to 200 micrograms/ml. The selectivity indices of these substances, calculated as the ratio of the dose that reduced the number of viable cells to 50% (CD50) to the effective dose that inhibited 50% of viral antigen expression (ED50), were greater than 400 with iota-carrageenan, greater than 222 with lambda-carrageenan and greater than 10 with kappa-carrageenan. The selectivity index of ribavirin (reference substance) was only 5. The 3 types of carrageenans resulted in concentration-dependent reduction of HAV-antigen expression and HAV infectivity. lota-and lambda-carrageenan emerged, from the present study, as promising candidates for chemotherapy of acute hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 3470Journal Short Form workform?|8Chernesky, M. A. J. Crawford S. Castriciano J. B. Mahony1991QThe diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis A or B by microparticle enzyme immunoassay291-296Journal of Virological Methods343The traditional approach to the diagnosis of viral hepatitis has been to collect a serum sample and to test it for the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), IgM to the core of HBV (anti-HBc IgM) and IgM to HAV (anti-HAV IgM) by solid phase radio- or enzyme immunoassays. Microparticle enzyme immunoassay technology (IMx-Abbott Laboratories) has been introduced as an automated carousel system for the detection of these markers. A side-by-side, blinded comparison of IMx to current IA was performed for HBsAg on 659 specimens submitted from March to July 1990, of which 72 (10.8%) were positive by AUSRIA (Abbott RIA for HBsAg) and 2 of these were discordant in IMx. Both were near the cutoff and by confirmatory testing one was positive and the other negative. Forty three percent (25/58) of frozen stored sera tested for anti-HBc IgM, by IMx, were positive by EIA (Corzyme M). One specimen near the cutoff was negative by EIA but weakly positive by IMx. Anti-HAV IgM was found in 21.8% (46/211) of sera with 100% correlation by IMx. Thus IMx had the following percent sensitivies and specificities: HBsAg; 98.6, 99.9; anti-HBc IgM; 100, 99.9; anti-HAV IgM; 100, 100. The test set-up times for the 3 markers in the IMx were similar to the RIA and EIA. The turnover time was 45 min for a full IMx carousel compared to: AUSRIA-short incubation (4 h), or long incubation (14 h); Corzyme M-short (4.75 h) or long (20 h); anti-HAV IgM (23 h). ProCite Record Number: 3470Journal Short Form workform?}Siegl, G. S. M. Lemon19902Recent advances in hepatitis A vaccine development75-92Virus Research172ReviewProCite Record Number: 3480Journal Short Form workform?~ Krah, D. L.1991WA simplified multiwell plate assay for the measurement of hepatitis A virus infectivity223-227 Biologicals193A standardized multiwell plate assay (MWPA) was developed to provide a simple in situ measurement of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infectivity titers. Following attachment (4 h, 35 degrees C) of serial 10-fold dilutions of HAV strain CR326 F (variant F') to confluent MRC-5 monolayers in 24-well plates, cultures were overlaid with maintenance medium and incubated for 35 days at 35 degrees C with weekly medium replacement. Cells were fixed with 90% acetone and HAV antigen was quantitated by reaction with a radio-iodinated anti-HAV serum. Measurement of virus infectivity was based on the amounts of specifically bound and eluted radiolabelled antibody. Virus titers (50% tissue culture infectious doses/ml, TCID50/ml) were calculated using the method of Reed & Muench (Am J Hyg. 1938; 27: 493-497), with wells producing cpm values greater than 2.1-times that of uninoculated controls considered positive. The use of a virus standard provided an estimate of the test variability (+/- 5% in Log10 TCID50 units). The MWPA offers a significant savings in time and reagents, and is proposed as a standard method for the simple and reliable measurement of the potency of HAV vaccine preparations. ProCite Record Number: 3480Journal Short Form workform?Reyes, G. R. B. M. Baroudy1991WMolecular biology of non-A, non-B hepatitis agents: hepatitis C and hepatitis E viruses57-102Advances in Virus Research40ReviewProCite Record Number: 3490Journal Short Form workform?[Midthun, K. E. Ellerbeck K. Gershman G. Calandra D. Krah M. McCaughtry D. Nalin P. Provost 1991cSafety and immunogenicity of a live attenuated hepatitis A virus vaccine in seronegative volunteers735-739Journal of Infectious Diseases1634Seronegative adults were enrolled in a dose-escalating study of a live attenuated hepatitis A virus (HAV) vaccine that was prepared from the F' variant of HAV strain CR326F. They were injected subcutaneously with 10(4.1), 10(5.2), 10(6.1), or 10(7.3) TCID 50 of HAV vaccine (n = 40) or with placebo (n = 12) and were followed for 6 months. None of the vaccine recipients developed significant systemic reactions or aminotransferase elevations. HAV was not isolated in cell culture from any postvaccination serum or stool specimen tested. Antibody to HAV was detected by modifications of HAV antibody assays (HAVAB or HAVAB-M) in 20%, 40%, 60%, and 100% of the recipients of each vaccine dose, in ascending order. Neutralizing antibody was present in all 10(7.3) TCID50 recipients tested at 3 and 6 months after vaccination. This live attenuated HAV vaccine was well tolerated and highly immunogenic at a dose of 10(7.3) TCID50. ProCite Record Number: 3490Journal Short Form workform?OStapleton, J. T. D. K. Lange J. W. LeDuc L. N. Binn R. W. Jansen S. M. Lemonet 1991=The role of secretory immunity in hepatitis A virus infection7-11Journal of Infectious Diseases1631Because the role of intestinal immunity remains uncertain in hepatitis A, samples of feces and saliva from infected primates and humans were tested for virus neutralizing activity. Only two of eight owl monkeys infected by the intragastric route developed neutralizing antibody detectable in extracts of feces collected up to 88 days after viral challenge, although serum neutralizing antibody was present in all monkeys by day 33. Similarly, neutralizing antibody was detected in fecal extracts from none of three experimentally infected human volunteers and only 1 of 15 naturally infected humans. The single positive human specimen contained occult blood. Only 2 of 19 saliva samples from naturally infected humans had significant viral neutralizing activity. In contrast, neutralizing antibody to type 2 poliovirus was present in most human fecal or saliva specimens tested. These data suggest that intestinal immunity does not play a significant role in protection against hepatitis A. ProCite Record Number: 3500Journal Short Form workform?RTam, A. W. M. M. Smith M. E. Guerra C C. Huang D. W. Bradley K. E. Fry G. R. Reyes1991YHepatitis E virus (HEV): molecular cloning and sequencing of the full-length viral genome120-131Virology1851We have recently described the cloning of a portion of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) and confirmed its etiologic association with enterically transmitted (waterborne, epidemic) non-A, non-B hepatitis. The virus consists of a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome of approximately 7.5 kb, with a polyadenylated 3' end. We now report on the cloning and nucleotide sequencing of an overlapping, contiguous set of cDNA clones representing the entire genome of the HEV Burma strain [HEV(B)]. The largest open reading frame extends approximately 5 kb from the 5' end and contains the RNA-directed RNA polymerase and nucleoside triphosphate binding motifs. The second major open reading frame (ORF2) begins 37 bp downstream of the first and extends approximately 2 kb to the termination codon present 65 bp from the 3' terminal stretch of poly(A) residues. ORF2 contains a consensus signal peptide sequence at its amino terminus and a capsid-like region with a high content of basic amino acids similar to that seen with other virus capsid proteins. A third open reading frame partially overlaps the first and second and encompasses only 369 bp. In addition to the 7.5-kb full-length genomic transcript, two subgenomic polyadenylated messages of approximately 3.7 and 2.0 kb were detected in infected liver using a probe from the 3' third of the genome. The genomic organization of the virus is consistent with the 5' end encoding nonstructural and the 3' end encoding the viral structural gene(s). The expression strategy of the virus involves the use of three different open reading frames and at least three different transcripts. HEV was previously determined to be a nonenveloped particle with a diameter of 27-34 nm. These findings on the genetic organization and expression strategy of HEV suggest that it is the prototype human pathogen for a new class of RNA virus or perhaps a separate genus within the Caliciviridae family. ProCite Record Number: 3500Journal Short Form workformC?-Humphrey, C. D. E. H. Cook, Jr. D. W. Bradley1990mIdentification of enterically transmitted hepatitis virus particles by solid phase immune electron microscopy177-188Journal of Virological Methods292Small 'featureless' viruses (less than 50 nm) are difficult to identify by routine immune electron microscopy techniques, particularly when they are mixed with debris from stool or cell culture extracts. A combination of conventional immune electron microscopy (IEM) and solid phase IEM (SPIEM) methodologies was used to identify hepatitis A virus (HAV) in stool and cell culture extracts and non-A non-B hepatitis (hepatitis E) in stool extracts. Compared with conventional IEM, the modified SPIEM method resulted in a significant increase in the number of particles observed. Several small aggregates, each containing 2-20 particles, were observed scattered randomly within most grid squares. Similar results were seen with stool extracts from hepatitis E (HEV) infections. The SPIEM method is a simple, highly sensitive specific assay that facilitates rapid identification of enteric hepatitis viruses. Several experiments were done to characterize the effects of altered physical environment within the assay and to evaluate potential modifications. ProCite Record Number: 3510Journal Short Form workform?AEmerson, S. U. C. McRill B. Rosenblum S. Feinstone R. H. Purcell 1991]Mutations responsible for adaptation of hepatitis A virus to efficient growth in cell culture 4882-4886Journal of Virology659Chimeric genomes of hepatitis A virus strain HM-175 were constructed from cDNA clones of the wild-type virus and its cell culture-adapted variant. RNA transcribed in vitro from each construct was assayed for infectivity by transfection of cultured cells. RNA transcribed from the wild-type cDNA clone was minimally infectious and produced virus that grew inefficiently in vitro, whereas that transcribed from certain chimeric genomes consistently produced virus that grew efficiently in cultured cells. Mutations in the P2 region were found to be necessary for efficient virus growth in vitro, while mutations in the 5' noncoding region imparted a conditional enhancement of growth in vitro. ProCite Record Number: 3510Journal Short Form workform?IBalayan, M. S. R. K. Usmanov N. A. Zamyatina D. I. Djumalieva F. R. Karas19903Experimental hepatitis E infection in domestic pigs58-59Journal of Medical Virology321 not availableProCite Record Number: 3520Journal Short Form workform|?MLemon, S. M. P. C. Murphy P. A. Shields S. M. Feinstone T. Cromeans R. Jansen1991Antigenic and genetic variation in cytopathic hepatitis A virus variants arising during persistent infection: evidence for genetic recombination 2056-2065Journal of Virology654Variants of hepatitis A virus (pHM175 virus) recovered from persistently infected green monkey kidney (BS-C-1) cells induced a cytopathic effect during serial passage in BS-C-1 or fetal rhesus kidney (FRhK-4) cells. Epitope-specific radioimmunofocus assays showed that this virus comprised two virion populations, one with altered antigenicity including neutralization resistance to monoclonal antibody K24F2, and the other with normal antigenic characteristics. Replication of the antigenic variant was favored over that of virus with the normal antigenic phenotype during persistent infection, while virus with the normal antigenic phenotype was selected during serial passage. Viruses of each type were clonally isolated; both were cytopathic in cell cultures and displayed a rapid replication phenotype when compared with the noncytopathic passage 16 (p16) HM175 virus which was used to establish the original persistent infection. The two cytopathic virus clones contained 31 and 34 nucleotide changes from the sequence of p16 HM175. Both shared a common 5' sequence (bases 30 to 1677), as well as sequence identity in the P2-P3 region (bases 3249 to 5303 and 6462 to 6781) and 3' terminus (bases 7272 to 7478). VP3, VP1, and 3Cpro contained different mutations in the two virus clones, with amino acid substitutions at residues 70 of VP3 and 197 and 276 of VP1 of the antigenic variant. These capsid mutations did not affect virion thermal stability. A comparison of the nearly complete genomic sequences of three clonally isolated cytopathic variants was suggestive of genetic recombination between these viruses during persistent infection and indicated that mutations in both 5' and 3' nontranslated regions and in the nonstructural proteins 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, and 3Dpol may be related to the cytopathic phenotype. ProCite Record Number: 3520Journal Short Form workform?Blacklow, N. R. H. B. Greenberg1991Viral gastroenteritis252-264New England Journal of Medicine32425ReviewProCite Record Number: 3530Journal Short Form workform>?Lemon, S. M. L. N. Binn R. Marchwicki P. C. Murphy L. H. Ping R. W. Jansen L. V. Asher J. T. Stapleton D. G. Taylor J. W. LeDuc 1990sIn vivo replication and reversion to wild type of a neutralization-resistant antigenic variant of hepatitis A virus7-13Journal of Infectious Diseases1611Six seronegative owl monkeys were intravenously inoculated with an antigenic variant (S18) of hepatitis A virus that is highly adapted to growth in cell culture and resists neutralization by monoclonal antibodies due to replacement of aspartic acid 70 of capsid protein VP3 with histidine. Each developed hepatitis 22-33 days after inoculation. Virus in feces, serum, and liver was quantified by radioimmunofocus assay. Viremia developed 7-11 days after inoculation, in parallel with fecal shedding of virus, and persisted for a mean of 20.5 days. Although the antigenic variant was recovered from feces or liver of three animals, virus in liver at the time of enzyme elevations was predominantly wild-type antigenic phenotype. Virus was not recovered from liver 96 days after challenge. These studies further define virologic events in hepatitis A and show that in vivo replication of an antigenic variant was restricted compared with that of wild-type virus. ProCite Record Number: 3530Journal Short Form workform?&Stapleton, J. T. J. Frederick B. Meyer19913Hepatitis A virus attachment to cultured cell lines 1098-1103Journal of Infectious Diseases1646Identification of a hepatitis A virus (HAV) receptor is important for understanding HAV tissue tropism and replication sites and in the design of vaccines and antiviral therapy. The attachment of HAV to cultured cell lines was evaluated: Calcium-dependent specific attachment of four HAV strains to permissive cells occurred, whereas binding to nonpermissive cells did not. Investigation of HAV antigenic variant strains (neutralization escape mutants) demonstrated identical attachment properties with neutralization-susceptible strains, suggesting that the immunodominant neutralization antigenic site of HAV is not directly involved in cell attachment. Unlike foot-and-mouth-disease virus, a related picornavirus, RGD peptides (arginine-glycine-aspartic acid) were unable to interfere with HAV attachment. These studies demonstrate that HAV has a calcium-dependent receptor on cultured cell lines and suggest that the HAV binding region does not involve an RGD sequence or the HAV immunodominant neutralization site. ProCite Record Number: 3540Journal Short Form workform?=Lin, Y. P. K. Nicholas F. R. Ball B. McLaughlin F. R. Bishai 1991xDetection of Norwalk-like virus and specific antibody by immune-electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes237-253Journal of Virological Methods353Direct electron-microscopy (DEM), immune electron microscopy (IEM) and four different procedures of immune electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes were evaluated for the detection of Norwalk-like virus and specific antibody. A solid-phase immune electron microscopy with colloidal gold immune complexes-triple layer method (SPIEMGIC-TLM) is developed for screening patients' specimens for the detection of Norwalk-like virus and its specific antibody. The method demonstrates low non-specific background labelling and is simple, sensitive and easy to perform. A quadruple layer method (SPIEMGIC-QLM), which is a modification of the triple layer method, has been established by adding a cross-linking anti-IgG layer to amplify the reaction and to provide a more sensitive test which is suitable for screening monoclonal antibodies prepared against 32-34-nm Norwalk-like virus isolated in our laboratory. ProCite Record Number: 3540Journal Short Form workform?Anderson, D. A. B. C. Ross1990XMorphogenesis of hepatitis A virus: isolation and characterization of subviral particles 5284-5289Journal of Virology6411 The morphogenesis of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in BS-C-1 cells was examined by immunoblotting with antisera to capsid proteins and labeling of virus-specific proteins with L-[35S]methionine. Antiserum to VP2 detected two virus-specific proteins with apparent molecular masses of 30.6 and 30 kDa, representing VP0 and VP2, while antiserum to VP1 detected proteins with molecular masses of 33 and 40 kDa, representing VP1 and a virus-specific protein which we designated PX, respectively. Sedimentation of cell lysates revealed the presence of virions, procapsids, and pentamers, but particles analogous to the protomers of other picornaviruses were not detected. Although provirions and virions were not found as discrete species in our gradient system, it was evident that the rate of sedimentation was proportional to the relative amounts of VP0 and VP2 in particles, with slower-sedimenting particles (provirions) containing predominantly VP0 rather than VP2. Procapsids contained VP0 in addition to VP1 and VP3. Pentamers also contained VP0, but PX was present rather than VP1. These results suggest that PX is a precursor to VP1 and is most likely 1D2A. Primary cleavage of the viral polyprotein also occurs at the 2A-2B junction in cardioviruses and aphthoviruses, but assembly of pentamers containing 1D2A has not been reported for those viruses. The absence of detectable levels of protomers suggests a high efficiency of pentamer formation, which may be related to the high efficiency of viral RNA encapsidation for HAV (D.A. Anderson, B.C. Ross, and S.A. Locarnini, J. Virol. 62:4201-4206, 1988). The results of this study reveal further unusual aspects of the HAV replicative cycle which distinguish it from other picornaviruses and may contribute to its restricted replication in cell culture. ProCite Record Number: 3550Journal Short Form workform?hMatsui, S. M. J. P. Kim H. B. Greenberg W. Su Q. Sun P. C. Johnson H. L. DuPont L. S. Oshiro G. R. Reyes1991CThe isolation and characterization of a Norwalk virus-specific cDNA 1456-1461!Journal of Clinical Investigation874e(Original) Sequence-independent single primer amplification, gastroenteritis, viral diarrhea, cloningNorwalk virus, an important cause of epidemic, acute, nonbacterial gastroenteritis in adults and children, has eluded adaptation to tissue culture, the development of an animal model, and molecular cloning. In this study, a portion of the Norwalk viral genome encoding an immunoreactive region was cloned from very small quantities of infected stool using sequence-independent single primer amplification. Six overlapping complementary DNA (cDNA) clones were isolated by immunologic screening. The expressed recombinant protein from a representative clone reacted with six of seven high titer. Norwalk-specific, postinfection sera but not with corresponding preinfection sera. Nucleic acid sequence for all clones defined a single open reading frame contiguous with the lambda gt11-expressed beta-galactosidase protein. Only oligonucleotide probes specific for the positive strand (defined by the open reading frame) hybridized to an RNaseA-sensitive, DNaseI-resistant nucleic acid sequence extracted from Norwalk-infected stool. Furthermore, RNA extracted from serial postinfection, but not preinfection, stools from three of five volunteers hybridized to a Norwalk virus cDNA probe. Clone-specific oligonucleotide probes hybridized with cesium chloride gradient fractions containing purified Norwalk virion. In conclusion, an antigenic, protein-coding region of the Norwalk virus genome has been identified. This epitope has potential utility in future sero- and molecular epidemiologic studies of Norwalk viral gastroenteritis. ProCite Record Number: 3550Journal Short Form workform?Zou, S. R. K. Chaudhary1991LKinetic study of the replication of a cell-culture-adapted hepatitis A virus381-385Research in Virology1425The kinetics of replication of hepatitis A virus (LCDC-01) was studied in foetal rhesus monkey kidney cells (FRhK-4). Cells infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 2.0 showed no viral antigen production until 12 h post-infection using radioimmuno assay (RIA); however, at 48 h post-infection a logarithmic increase in antigen concentration began, which peaked by day 7. Similar patterns were observed with cultures infected with lower MOI (0.20 and 0.02) but events were delayed by about 24 h. In contrast, detection of antigen by fluorescence antibody methods occurred at only 72 h after inoculation, with either 2.0 or 0.02 MOI, and peaked by day 9. The production of infectious virus did not begin until 24 h post-infection as measured by RIA and gradually peaked by day 6. Viral RNA was first detected 24 h post-infection by hybridization assay. The amount of viral RNA in the infected cells increased significantly between days 4 to 7. Restriction in the synthesis of RNA or infectious virus was not observed. ProCite Record Number: 3560Journal Short Form workform ?&Badawy, A. S. C. P. Gerba L. M. Kelley1985)Survival of rotavirus SA-11 on vegetables199-205Food Microbiology23DLettuces, radishes, carrots, food-contamination, rotavirus, survival not availableProCite Record Number: 3570Journal Short Form workform?Berman, D. J. C. Hoff1984WInactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine317-323&Applied and Environmental Microbiology482The kinetics of inactivation of simian rotavirus SA11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and monochloramine were studied at 5 degrees C with a purified preparation of single virions and a preparation of cell-associated virions. Inactivation of the virus preparations with chlorine and chlorine dioxide was studied at pH 6 and 10. The monochloramine studies were done at pH 8. With 0.5 mg of chlorine per liter at pH 6, more than 4 logs (99.99%) of the single virions were inactivated in less than 15 s. Both virus preparations were inactivated more rapidly at pH 6 than at pH 10. With chlorine dioxide, however, the opposite was true. Both virus preparations were inactivated more rapidly at pH 10 than at pH 6. With 0.5 mg of chlorine dioxide per liter at pH 10, more than 4 logs of the single-virus preparation were inactivated in less than 15 s. The cell-associated virus was more resistant to inactivation by the three disinfectants than was the preparation of single virions. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide, each at a concentration of 0.5 mg/liter and at pH 6 and 10, respectively, inactivated 99% of both virus preparations within 4 min. Monochloramine at a concentration of 10 mg/liter and at pH 8 required more than 6 h for the same amount of inactivation. ProCite Record Number: 3580Journal Short Form workformM?Blackwell, J. H.19762Survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cheese 1574-1579Journal of Dairy Science599Persistence of foot-and-mouth disease virus during the manufacture of Cheddar, Mozzarella, Camembert cheese prepared from milk of cows experimentally infected with the virus was studied. Cheese samples were made on a laboratory scale with commercial lactic acid starter cultures and the microbial protease MARZYME as a coagulant. Milk was heated at different temperatures for different intervals before it was made into cheese. Food-and-mouth disease virus survived the acidic conditions of Cheddar and Camembert cheese processing but not that of Mozzarella. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived processing but not curing for 30 days in Cheddar cheese preparaed from heated milk. However, the virus survived curing for 60 days but not for 120 days in cheese (pH 5) prepared from unheated milk. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in Camembert cheese (pH 5) for 21 days at 2 C but not for 35 days. ProCite Record Number: 3590Journal Short Form workform?-Blackwell, J. H. E. J. Nolan D. A. Rickansrud1988bTotal caloric input of a thermal process as an index of lethality for foot-and-mouth disease virus185-190Journal of Food Science531dMeat-products, food-contamination, aphthovirus, food-processing, heat-treatment, mathematical-modelslBecause significant quantities of foot-and-mouth disease virus undetectable by cell culture infectivity assay can persist in infected tissues throughout thermal processing, classical methods for measuring virus inactivation are difficult to achieve. This study was undertaken to observe the lethality of a given process rather than determining a constant for process time for a given lethality. Thermal diffusivities (alpha) and one-dimensional heat flux (Q) were determined for three thermal processes used in processing of beef and pork products. Foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in ground beef cooked in flexible nylon thermal processing tubes to core temperatures of 63 degrees C (892 kcal/m2) in 1.2 hr and 71.2 degrees C (1004 kcal/m2) in 1.45 hr; however, the virus did not survive after processing to a core temperature of 79.4 degrees C (1363 kcal/m2) in 2.0 hr.ProCite Record Number: 3600Journal Short Form workform?)Blackwell, J. H. S. Wool F. V. Kosikowski1981mVesicular exocytosis of foot-and-mouth disease virus from mammary gland secretory epithelium of infected cows207-212Journal of General Virology561Foot-and-mouth disease virus particles were observed by electron microscopy in the cytoplasma of alveolar secretory cells of the bovine mammary gland after contact exposure of uninfected cows to pits with foot-and-mouth disease. Virus, contained in membrane-limited vesicles, was released from the basal and peranuclear portions of the cells into the intracellular and extracellular spaces by an exocytotic mechanism similar to that of the release of th milk-fat globule. Virus was released into the lumen from the apical portion of the cell both by membrane-limited vesicles and by the merocrinal exocytosis of casein-associated virus. The lytic release of virus was observed in 20% of the preparations observedProCite Record Number: 3610Journal Short Form workform+?<Blackwell, J. H. D. Rickansrud P. D. McKercher J. W. McVicar1982[Effect of thermal processing on the survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in ground meat388-92Journal of Food Science47Foot-and-mouth disease virus was examined for its stability during cooking in tissues from infected cattle. The O1 (CANEFA 2) serotype of foot-and-mouth disease virus survived in lymph node tissues after heating for 2 hr at 69ºC, for 1 hr but not for 2 hr at 82ºC, and for 15 min but not for 0.5 hr at 90ºC. Incorporation of 1% NaCl into suspensions of infected lymph nodes enhanced viral survival after heating for 0.5 hr but not for 1 hr at 90ºC. The virus did not survive in either ground beef or meatballs contaminated with infected lymph node tissue, when processed to internal temperatures of 93.3, 96.1 or 98.8ºC using commercial thermal processing procedures. Accurate temperature measurements were achieved with a temperature sensitive indicator disc developed in this study.ProCite Record Number: 3620Journal Short Form workform? Breindl, M.1971,The structure of heated poliovirus particles147-156J. Gen. Virol.113ProCite Record Number: 3630Journal Short Form workform? Breindl, M.1971&VP4, the D-reactive part of poliovirus962-964Virology463ProCite Record Number: 3640Journal Short Form workform?Breindl, M. G. Koch1972nCompetence of suspended HeLa cells for infection by inactivated poliovirus particles and by isolated viral RNA136-144Virology481ProCite Record Number: 3650Journal Short Form workform?Cliver, D. O. J. E. Herrmann19727Proteolytic and microbial inactivation of enteroviruses797-805Water Research6ProCite Record Number: 3670Journal Short Form workform?$Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D.1979&Antiviral effectiveness of grape juice100-104 J. Food Prot.42ProCite Record Number: 3680Journal Short Form workform?4Cliver, D. O. Kostenbader Jr., K. D. M. R. Vallenas1970*Stability of viruses in low moisture foods484-491J. Milk Food Technol.3311 not availableProCite Record Number: 3700Journal Short Form workform?4Cunliffe, H. R. J. H. Blackwell R. Dors J. S. Walker1979QInactivation of milkborne foot-and-mouth disease virus at ultra-high temperatures135-137Journal of Food Protection42ProCite Record Number: 3710Journal Short Form workform?$Di Girolamo, R. J. Liston J. Matches1972GEffects of irradiation on the survival of viruses in west coast oysters 1005-1006Applied Microbiology246ProCite Record Number: 3730Journal Short Form workform@?#DiGirolamo, R. J. Liston J. Matches1975:Uptake and elimination of poliovirus by west coast oysters260-264Applied Microbiology292bAccumulation of poliovirus Lsc-2ab by West Coast oysters was determined by using a stationary seawater system, and depuration was determined by using both stationary and free-flow systems. Results indicate that these shellfish have the same pattern of accumulation and localization of viruses as do East Coast species. However, uptake appeared to occur more rapidly than described for East Coast shellfish. There appeared to be a gradual diffusion of virus from the digestive area into the body. Depuration was found to occur more rapidly and completely under free-flow conditions than in a stationary system. ProCite Record Number: 3740Journal Short Form workformRWht7.Dahling, D. R. Wright, B. A.1986nOptimization of the BGM cell line culture and viral assay procedures for monitoring viruses in the environment790-812Appl Environ Microbiol514Animal?Filppi, J. A. G. J. Banwart1974OEffect of the fat content of ground beef on the heat inactivation of poliovirus865-868Journal of Food Science39ProCite Record Number: 3760Journal Short Form workform?(Fricks, C. E. J. P. Icenogle J. M. Hogle1985nTrypsin sensitivity of the Sabin strain of type 1 poliovirus: Cleavage sites in virions and related particles856-859Journal of Virology543Treatment of the Sabin strain of type 1 poliovirus with trypsin produced two stable fragments of capsid protein VP1 which remained associated with the virions. Trypsinized virus was fully infectious and was neutralized by type-specific antisera. The susceptible site in the Sabin 1 strain was between the lysine at position 99 and the asparagine at position 100. A similar tryptic cleavage occurred in the Leon and Sabin strains of type 3 poliovirus, probably at the arginine at position 100, but not in the type 1 Mahoney strain, which lacks a basic residue at either position 99 or position 100. Tryptic treatment of heat-treated virus and 14S assembly intermediates produced unique stable fragments which were different from those produced in virions. The implications of our results for future characterization of the surface structures of these particles and structural rearrangements in the poliovirus capsid are discussed. ProCite Record Number: 3770Journal Short Form workform?Grausgruber, W.1963ZInvestigations of the inactivation of infectious swine paralysis virus in scalded sausages678-685Wiener Tierärztl. Monatsschr.50ProCite Record Number: 3790Journal Short Form workform? Gresikova, M.1972<Studies on tick-borne arboviruses isolated in central Europe1-111Biologicke Prace.182 not availableProCite Record Number: 3800Journal Short Form workform?Heidelbaugh, N. D. D. J. Giron1969DEffect of processing on recovery of poliovirus from inoculated foods239-241Journal of Food Science34 not availableProCite Record Number: 3820Journal Short Form workform?Heidelbaugh, N. D. J. H. Graves1968kEffects of some techniques applicable in food processing on the infectivity of foot-and-mouth disease virus120-124Food Technology22ProCite Record Number: 3830Journal Short Form workform?Herrmann, J. E. D. O. Cliver19732Enterovirus persistence in sausage and ground beef426-428Journal of Milk Food Technology368 not availableProCite Record Number: 3850Journal Short Form workform?!Hogle, J. M. M. Chow D. J. Filman1985>Three-dimensional structure of poliovirus at 2.9 A resolution 1358-1365Science2294720The three-dimensional structure of poliovirus has been determined at 2.9 A resolution by x-ray crystallographic methods. Each of the three major capsid proteins (VP1, VP2, and VP3) contains a "core" consisting of an eight-stranded antiparallel beta barrel with two flanking helices. The arrangement of beta strands and helices is structurally similar and topologically identical to the folding pattern of the capsid proteins of several icosahedral plant viruses. In each of the major capsid proteins, the "connecting loops" and NH2- and COOH-terminal extensions are structurally dissimilar. The packing of the subunit "cores" to form the virion shell is reminiscent of the packing in the T = 3 plant viruses, but is significantly different in detail. Differences in the orientations of the subunits cause dissimilar contacts at protein-protein interfaces, and are also responsible for two major surface features of the poliovirion: prominent peaks at the fivefold and threefold axes of the particle. The positions and interactions of the NH2- and COOH-terminal strands of the capsid proteins have important implications for virion assembly. Several of the "connecting loops" and COOH-terminal strands form prominent radial projections which are the antigenic sites of the virion. ProCite Record Number: 3860Journal Short Form workform? Kaneko, M.1989NEffect of suspended solids on inactivation of poliovirus and T2-phage by ozone215-219Water Science and Technology213ProCite Record Number: 3870Journal Short Form workform ?Kantor, M. A. N. N. Potter1975tPersistence of echovirus and poliovirus in fermented sausages: Effects of sodium of nitrite and processing variables968-972Journal of Food Science40ProCite Record Number: 3880Journal Short Form workformd?kKeswick, B. H. T. K. Satterwhite P. C. Johnson H. L. DuPont S. L. Secor J. A. Bitsura G. W. Gary J. C. Hoff1985;Inactivation of Norwalk virus in drinking water by chlorine261-264Appl. Environ. Microbiol.5028Norwalk virus in water was found to be more resistant to chlorine inactivation than poliovirus type 1 (LSc2Ab), human rotavirus (Wa), simian rotavirus (SA11), or f2 bacteriophage. A 3.75 mg/liter dose of chlorine was found to be effective against other viruses but failed to inactivate Norwalk virus. The Norwalk virus inoculum remained infectious for five of eight volunteers, despite the initial presence of free residual chlorine. Infectivity in volunteers was demonstrated by seroconversion to Norwalk virus. Fourteen of 16 subjects receiving untreated inoculum seroconverted to Norwalk virus. Illness was produced in four of the eight volunteers and in 11 of 16 control subjects. A similar Norwalk virus inoculum treated with a 10 mg/liter dose of chlorine produced illness in only one and failed to induce seroconversion in any of eight volunteers. Free chlorine (5 to 6 mg/liter) was measured in the reaction vessel after a 30-minute contact period. Norwalk virus appears to be very resistant to chlorine which may explain its importance in outbreaks of waterborne disease.ProCite Record Number: 3890Journal Short Form workform V\|7#Leong, Y. K. Xui, O. C. Chia, O. K.2008YSurvival of SA11 rotavirus in fresh fruit juices of pineapple, papaya, and honeydew melon1035-7 J Food Prot715<Ananas/*?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs19741Recovery of coxsackievirus B5 from stored lettuce132-134Journal of Milk Food Technology373 not availableProCite Record Number: 3910Journal Short Form workform?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1975<Survival of enteric virus on fresh vegetables[Contamination]469-472Journal of Milk Food Technology388 not availableProCite Record Number: 3920Journal Short Form workform?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1976$Antiviral activity of fruit extracts 1013-1017Journal of Food Science41ProCite Record Number: 3930Journal Short Form workformt7`Konowalchuk, J. Speirs, J. I.19783Antiviral effect of commercial juices and beverages1219-20Appl Environ Microbiol356hAntiviral Agents/*pharmacology Ascorbic Acid/pharmacology *Beverages *Fruit Poliovirus/*drug effects TeaJunNineteen commercial juices or beverages were tested for inactivation of poliovirus type 1. Grape and apple juices and tea were particularly antiviral. Although antiviral in aqueous solution, ascorbic acid was ineffective after addition to juices.chttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=209736Konowalchuk, J Speirs, J I United states Applied and environmental microbiology Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978 Jun;35(6):1219-20.0099-2240 (Print)243010209736eng Sclined more readily than that of commercial juice in response to heat and storage. The component responsible for activity was located both in the pulp and skin; after ultrafiltration, activity was present in fractions greater and less than molecular?Konowalchuk, J. J. I. Speirs1977Virus detection on grapes 1301-1303 Canadian Journal of Microbiology2390Grapes inoculated with poliovirus 1 and coxsackievirus B5 were washed with water, 0.5% polyehtylene glycol, or phosphate-buffered saline with 1% serum. These washes were equally efficient at removing virus but much of the virus in the water was noninfectious until treated with 0.5% polyethylene glycol. ProCite Record Number: 3950Journal Short Form workformzHt7aKonowalchuk, J. Speirs, J. I.1978#Antiviral effect of apple beverages798-801Appl Environ Microbiol366Antiviral Agents/*pharmacology *Beverages Enterovirus B, Human/*drug effects *Fruit Heat Hydrogen-Ion Concentration Poliovirus/*drug effectsDec:A variety of apple beverages were tested for antiviral activity against poliovirus 1 or coxsackievirus B5. Freshly prepared apple juice was particularly antiviral, but its activity de?#Kostenbader Jr., K. D. D. O. Cliver19781Quest for viruses associated with our food supply1253-1257,1268 J. Food Sci.42ProCite Record Number: 3980Journal Short Form workform?'Larkin, E. P. J. T. Tierney R. Sullivan19763Persistence of virus on sewage-irrigated vegetables29-35&J. Envir. Eng. Div., Am. Soc Civ. Eng.102ProCite Record Number: 4000Journal Short Form workform?Lynt, R. K. Jr.1966/Survival and recovery of enterovirus from foods218-222Applied Microbiology144ProCite Record Number: 4010Journal Short Form workform+?D)Di Girolamo, R., Liston, J., Matches, J. 1972<Survival of virus in chilled, frozen, and processed oysters.58-63Applied Microbiology20?<Metcalf, T. G. B. Mullin D. Eckerson E. Moulton E. P. Larkin1979VBioaccumulation and depuration of enteroviruses by the soft-shelled clam, Mya arenaria275-282&Applied and Environmental Microbiology382Low levels of feces-associated natural virus, simulating virus numbers estimated to exist in moderately polluted shellfish-growing waters, were used to evaluate the effectiveness of depuration as a virus depletion procedure in soft-shell clams. Depuration effectiveness depended upon the numbers of virus bioaccumulated and whether virus was solids associated. Virus uptake was greatest when viruses were solids associated and pollution levels were equivalent or greater than those likely to be found in grossly polluted growing waters. Virtually all bioaccumulated feces-associated natural virus was deposited within either the hepatopancreas or siphon tissues. Viruses usually were eliminated within a 24- to 48-h depuration period. Dependence upon depuration of clams to elimate health hazards of virus etiology involved a risk factor not measureable in the study. The greatest reduction of health risks would come from the routine depuration of clams harvested from growing waters of good sanitary quality. ProCite Record Number: 4040Journal Short Form workform?2Metcalf, T. G. D. Eckerson E. Moulton E. P. Larkin1980RUptake and depletion of particulate-associated polioviruses by the soft shell clam87-88Journal of Food Protection432ProCite Record Number: 4050Journal Short Form workform @V@|7.Moce-Llivina, L. Papageorgiou, G. T. Jofre, J.2006A membrane-based quantitative carrier test to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and persistence of viruses on porous fomites49-55J Virol Methods1351Adsorption Antiviral Agents/*pharmacology Cellulose/analogs & derivatives Chlorine/pharmacology Disinfectants/*pharmacology Enterovirus/*drug effects Glutaral/pharmacology Humans Humidity Plaque Assay Temperature *Virus InactivationJul@A membrane-based quantitative carrier test method to assess the virucidal activity of disinfectants and the persistence of viruses on fomites under different environmental conditions is described. The method is based on the inactivation of the virus adsorbed to cellulose ester membranes followed by the direct enumeration of the viruses surviving the treatment without the need of an elution step. The method was suitable for four different human enteroviruses tested. Experiments comparing the infectivity loss of human enteroviruses in suspension or adsorbed to the filters after treatment with chlorine and glutaraldehyde showed that the human enteroviruses tested suffered significantly greater log10 reductions when suspended than when adsorbed. Significant differences in the effect of the disinfectants on the various human enteroviruses tested were also observed. Moreover, the procedure allowed determining the inactivation of viruses ?AMitchell, J. R. M. W. Presnell E. W. Akin J. M. Cummins O. C. Liu1966@Accumulation and elimination of poliovirus by the eastern oyster40-50 American Journal of Epidemiology841ProCite Record Number: 4070Journal Short Form workform?5Neefe, J. R. J. Stokes, Jr. J. B. Baty J. G. Reinhold1945SDisinfection of water containing causative agent of infectious (epidemic) hepatitis 1076-1080'Journal of American Medical Association128ProCite Record Number: 4080Journal Short Form workform?EPanina, G. F. A. Civardi I. Massirio F. Scatozza P. Baldini F. Palmia1989RSurvival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in sausage meat products (Italian salami)141-148*International Journal of Food Microbiology82YDetermination of the survival of foot- and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in fresh meat from experimentally infected swine and in several types of sausage meat (Italian salami) produced according to the technology widely applied by the principal Italian producers has been carried out. The purpose of the experiment was to assess if typical Italian salami can be considered safe with regard to the spread of FMD through international trade. The results obtained showed: (a) high titers of FMDV were detected in both muscle and fat tissues from animals slaughtered at the peak of the experimental disease; and (b) FMDV was not detectable in the above tissues 72 h after slaughtering and the same applies to the different types of salami tested 7 days after production. The above results were obtained in tissue cultures and confirmed through piglet inoculation. ProCite Record Number: 4090Journal Short Form workform?8Peterson, D. A. L. G. Wolfe E. P. Larkin F. W. Deinhardt1978EThermal treatment and infectivity of hepatitis A virus in human feces201-206Journal of Medical Virology23The susceptibility of white-lipped marmoset monkeys (Saguinus sp) to human hepatitis A virus (HAV) provides a system for evaluation of thermal inactivation of HAV in feces and contaminated shellfish. Intramuscular or oral administration of HAV derived from feces of four patients with acute hepatitis A induced hepatitis in 28--100% of the inoculated marmosets. A 10% (w/v) fecal pool (GBG-BM) prepared from two patients (GBG and GBM) induced hepatitis in marmosets (2/4 with 1 ml; 2/2 with 3 ml) when given orally as a 1 : 3 dilution. A HAV-baby food raw oyster mixture fed to fasted marmosets induced hepatitis in 1/4 and seroconversion in 2/4 animals. Two groups of oysters were injected with HAV (concentrated 3 : 1 by centrifugation of the GBG-BM pool); one group was treated at 140 degrees F for 19 minutes and the other served as an untreated control. In animals fed the untreated inoculum, 4/6 developed hepatitis and 6/6 seroconverted, whereas of those fed the heat-treated inoculum 1/7 developed hepatitis and 2/7 seroconverted. These data suggest that pasteurization methods could be developed that would eliminate shellfish-associated hepatitis A and retain the palatability of the shellfish. ProCite Record Number: 4100Journal Short Form workform?3Peterson, D. A. T. R. Hurley J. C. Hoff L. G. Wolfe1983@Effect of chlorine treatment on infectivity of hepatitis A virus223-227Appl. Environ. Microbiol.451This study examined the effect of chlorine treatment on the infectivity of hepatitis A virus (HAV). Prodromal chimpanzee feces, shown to induce hepatitis in marmosets (Saguinus sp.), was clarified, and the virus was precipitated with 7% polyethylene glycol 6000, harvested, and resuspended. The suspension was layered onto 5 to 30% linear sucrose gradients and centrifuged; the fractions containing HAV were dialyzed, and a 1:500,000 dilution of this preparation induced hepatitis and seroconversion in 2 of 4 marmosets. A 1:50 dilution of this preparation served as inoculum. Untreated inoculum induced overt hepatitis and seroconversion in 100% (5 of 5) of marmosets inoculated intramuscularly. Inoculum treated for various periods (15, 30, or 60 min) with 0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter induced hepatitis in 14% (2 of 14), 8% (1 of 12), and 10% (1 of 10) of marmosets, respectively, and induced seroconversion in 29, 33, and 10% of the animals. Inoculum treated with 2.0 or 2.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter was not infectious in marmosets as determined by absence of hepatitis and seroconversion in the 13 animals tested. Thus, treatment levels of 0.5 to 1.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter inactivated most but not all HAV in the preparation, whereas concentrations of 2.0 and 2.5 mg of free residual chlorine per liter destroyed the infectivity completely. These results suggest that HAV is somewhat more resistant to chlorine than are other enteroviruses.ProCite Record Number: 4110Journal Short Form workform?Power, U. F. J. K. Collins1989mDifferential depuration of poliovirus, Escherichia coli, and a coliphage by the common mussel, Mytilus edulis 1386-1390&Applied and Environmental Microbiology556The elimination of sewage effluent-associated poliovirus, Escherichia coli, and a 22-nm icosahedral coliphage by the common mussel, Mytilus edulis, was studied. Both laboratory-and commercial-scale recirculating, UV depuration systems were used in this study. In the laboratory system, the logarithms of the poliovirus, E. coli, and coliphage levels were reduced by 1.86, 2.9, and 2.16, respectively, within 52 h of depuration. The relative patterns and rates of elimination of the three organisms suggest that they are eliminated from mussels by different mechanisms during depuration under suitable conditions. Poliovirus was not included in experiments undertaken in the commercial-scale depuration system. The differences in the relative rates and patterns of elimination were maintained for E. coli and coliphage in this system, with the logarithm of the E. coli levels being reduced by 3.18 and the logarithm of the coliphage levels being reduced by 0.87. The results from both depuration systems suggest that E. coli is an inappropriate indicator of the efficiency of virus elimination during depuration. The coliphage used appears to be a more representative indicator. Depuration under stressful conditions appeared to have a negligible affect on poliovirus and coliphage elimination rates from mussels. However, the rate and pattern of E. coli elimination were dramatically affected by these conditions. Therefore, monitoring E. coli counts might prove useful in ensuring that mussels are functioning well during depuration. ProCite Record Number: 4120Journal Short Form workform S|7cJassim, S. A. Naji, M. A.20035Novel antiviral agents: a medicinal plant perspective412-27J Appl Microbiol953Antiviral Agents/*therapeutic use Clinical Trials as Topic Drug Therapy, Combination Humans Phytotherapy/*methods Plant Extracts/chemistry/*therapeutic use Virus Diseases/*drug therapySeveral hundred plant and herb species that have potential as novel antiviral agents have been studied, with surprisingly little overlap. A wide variety of active phytochemicals, including the flavonoids, terpenoids, lignans, sulphides, polyphenolics, coumarins, saponins, furyl compounds, alkaloids, polyines, thiophenes, proteins and peptides have been identified. Some volatile essential oils of commonly used culinary herb?.Sattar, S. A. R. A. Raphael V. S. Springthorpe1984;Rotavirus survival in conventionally treated drinking water653-656 Canadian Journal of Microbiology305Samples of conventionally treated drinking water collected either as effluent (PE) at a treatment plant or out of a tap (TW) in our laboratory were seeded with simian rotavirus SA-11, which closely resembles rotavirus of human origin. The virus, grown in MA-104 cells, was suspended either in distilled water, Earle's balanced salt solution (EBSS), or tryptose phosphate broth (TPB), and added to the water samples to a final concentration of 5.7 X 10(3) plaque-forming units (PFU) per millilitre. After a contact time of 1 h at 22 degrees C, the samples were diluted and plaque assayed. There was no significant reduction in the virus titre in samples of TW (less than 0.05 mg/L free chlorine). The titre also remained almost the same in PE (0.75 mg/L free chlorine) when EBSS or TPB was used for virus suspension. There was, however, nearly a 1 log10 loss in the titre of the virus when it was suspended in distilled water before the contamination of PE. To study the long-term survival of the rotavirus in TW, the inoculated samples (5.0 X 10(4) PFU/mL) were held at either 4 or 20 degrees C in the dark and tested over a period of 64 days. At 20 degrees C it took 64 days to reduce the virus titre by 2 log10, whereas at 4 degrees C the virus titre dropped only 0.7 log10 during the same period. Rotaviruses could, therefore, survive well enough in conventionally treated drinking water to make it a possible vehicle for their transmission. ProCite Record Number: 4150Journal Short Form workform0?1Sattar, S. A. V. S. Springthorpe Y. Karim P. Loro1989uChemical disinfection of non-porous inanimate surfaces experimentally contaminated with four human pathogenic viruses493-505Epidemiology and Infection1023The chemical disinfection of virus-contaminated non-porous inanimate surfaces was investigated using coxsackievirus B3, adenovirus type 5, parainfluenza virus type 3 and coronavirus 229E as representatives of important nosocomial viral pathogens. A 10 microliter amount of the test virus, suspended in either faeces or mucin, was placed onto each stainless steel disk (about 1 cm in diameter) and the inoculum allowed to dry for 1 h under ambient conditions. Sixteen disinfectant formulations were selected for this study based on the findings of an earlier investigation with a human rotavirus. After 1 min exposure to 20 microliters of the disinfectant, the virus from the disks was immediately eluted into tryptose phosphate broth and plaque assayed. Using an efficacy criterion of a 3 log10 or greater reduction in virus infectivity titre and irrespective of the virus suspending medium, only the following five disinfectants proved to be effective against all the four viruses tested: (1) 2% glutaraldehyde normally used as an instrument soak, (2) a strongly alkaline mixture of 0.5% sodium o-benzyl-p-chlorophenate and 0.6% sodium lauryl sulphate, generally used as a domestic disinfectant cleaner for hard surfaces, (3) a 0.04% solution of a quaternary ammonium compound containing 7% hydrochloric acid, which is the basis of many toilet bowl cleaners, (4) chloramine T at a minimum free chlorine level of 3000 p.p.m. and (5) sodium hypochlorite at a minimum free chlorine concentration of 5000 p.p.m. Of those chemicals suitable for use as topical antiseptics, 70% ethanol alone or products containing at least 70% ethanol were